Five Views on Sanctification

Sanctification, or alternatively referred to as the process of sanctifying, entails the act of consecrating someone or something for a distinct and elevated purpose. In essence, it involves the transformation of individuals or objects into a state of sacredness or holiness, akin to a vessel emanating the divine presence of the Holy Spirit.

1. Pentecostal – encourages every believer to thirst and hunger for righteousness in its complete form of human perfection. This tradition challenges the Church to set aside lesser pursuits and to focus on the question, “What will make me holy?” It calls us strongly to the centrality and power of love. This view treats seriously God’s call to holiness, and emphasizes the grace of God and His intention of making us holy.
2. Charismatic – emphasizes a type of “crisis” experience which unleashes God’s power for service and sanctification, giving total conviction of the reality of God and deepened intimacy with God. It also teaches that a “process” follows the “crisis”, in which the believer grows in Christ-likeness through cooperation with the indwelling Holy Spirit and the application of the Word of God. This view reminds us that God is sovereign and He should not be put in any human box. God’s power often came mysteriously and suddenly, with instantaneous evidence of miraculous power. Other strengths are the emphasis on the role of the Holy Spirit in sanctification, and the conviction that a high degree of sanctification is possible in this life. Sanctification is not just the renewing of the mind but of the entire person, including emotions.
3. Historic Evangelicals– softens the holiness of the first view and softens the crisis of the second view. It teaches a “crisis followed by a process.” The crisis is a total act of dedication which is followed by a process of growth. The victorious life is gained not by eradicating the sin nature, but by “counteracting” it like a plane that overcomes gravity. The fully dedicated believer moved into a higher realm, and can overcome the downward pull of sin by the upward power of the Spirit. Sanctification thus involves the “exchanged life” of trusting God for the ability to live righteously. Strengths of this view include its emphasis on the believers identification with Christ in His death and resurrection, the seriousness with which it treats sin, and its stress on the need for surrender to the Lordship of Christ.

In the Protestant realm, there are many distinct perspectives on the subject of sanctification.

1. Reformed View; Justification then Sanctification
2. The Wesleyan View; Perfect Love Toward God and Man (Wesley, Fletcher, Clarke)
3. Holiness Movement View; Modified Wesleyan Perfectionism
4. The The Higher Life Movement; Pentecostal View
5. The Keswick View
6. The Augustinian-Dispensational View

1. WESLEYAN VIEW

The Wesleyan perspective derives its name from the illustrious figure of John Wesley (1703-1791), a visionary theologian and passionate evangelist hailing from England. Wesley’s profound scholarship encompassed a deep study of the teachings of the early church fathers, which led him to diverge from the prevailing Reformed tradition of his time.

According to Wesley, the ultimate goal of sanctification lies in the trans formative renewal of individuals’ hearts, reflecting the divine image. Wesley passionately believed that genuine Christian maturity is best demonstrated by a “faith that emanates from divine love, flourishing in the crucible of everyday life.” Throughout his teachings, Wesley fervently emphasized that love truly serves as the supreme measure of sanctification.

In his doctrine, Wesley posited that sanctification begins at the moment of conversion, when the Holy Spirit ignites and enlightens the believer’s heart. From there, sanctification is cultivated through unwavering faith, much like the process of salvation itself. Therefore, when a devout Christian earnestly seeks God, expressing steadfast faith in His power to enable a life guided by divine love, the Holy Spirit faithfully works to eradicate sinful inclinations and replace them with a natural inclination towards devoted and obedient love for the divine. This transformative journey towards sanctification fills one’s life with hope, joy, and an unwavering optimism for the future.

Wesley embraced the belief that humanity, despite its fallen nature, is endowed with a profound capacity for goodness. He saw an innate inclination towards God in every individual, a spark that can be attributed to the divine grace that continually draws us closer to our Creator. This divine intervention, known as prevenient grace, illuminates the path for all of humanity to grow in relationship with God. It serves as the catalyst for our salvation, guiding us towards redeeming grace, sanctifying grace, and empowering us to live a life filled with love and purpose.

According to Wesleyan teachings, as we mature in our Christian faith, we have the power to resist the temptations of sin, although we are not immune to its influence. While we may still experience struggles and setbacks, it is important to remember that through God’s grace, we have the ability to overcome and grow. We are not defined by our past mistakes but by the trans-formative power of God’s love working within us.

In this understanding, Wesley’s teachings inspire hope and optimism, reminding us that we are not alone in our journey towards holiness. With God’s grace, we can strive towards a future where sin and suffering will no longer have dominion over us, and we can fully embrace the abundant life that God desires for each and every one of us.

Wesley embraced the idea of continuous growth and spiritual development for Christians. He firmly believed that followers of Christ have the potential to experience a remarkable freedom from sin, surpassing what was traditionally thought achievable. According to Wesley, it is possible for believers to be completely delivered from intentional wrongdoing and to be sanctified even before their physical death. He encouraged Christians to strive for a form of religious expression that goes beyond mere surface-level faith, urging them to aim for the complete elimination of sin from their lives. Despite the imperfections of the world, Wesley held the unwavering belief that individuals can truly embody the divine commandment of love in their present existence. This perspective, which Wesley referred to as the “optimism of grace,” highlights his conviction in the power of genuine transformation and moral progress within the lives of believers.

Wesley’s understanding of sin within the life of a believer is particularly evident in his doctrine of complete sanctification. This state of complete holiness can be experienced at the moment of salvation, or it may occur at a pivotal point in a Christian’s spiritual journey after conversion. Those who have encountered complete sanctification are characterized by a renewed sense of joy, deepened faith, and a stronger commitment to living a life that reflects the trans-formative power of God’s love in the following ways;

1. A wholehearted love for God and neighbor
2. Having the mind of Christ
3. Bearing the fruit of the Spirit
4. Both inward and outward righteousness and true holiness in life
5. Complete devotion to God
6. Giving thoughts, words, and actions as a sacrifice of thanksgiving to God
7. Salvation from all sin

Entire sanctification for Wesley entails the liberation from intentional transgression, yet it does not mark the ultimate culmination of Christian maturation.

SANCTIFICATION AND LAW

Wesley passionately believed that embracing the “royal law” outlined in the Sermon on the Mount allows Christians to not only adhere to the ten commandments, but also infuses them with a renewed sense of purpose and spiritual vitality. Through this perspective, Wesley viewed the Sermon on the Mount as a transformative force that brings sanctifying purity and a sense of spiritual fulfillment into the lives of believers. By faithfully following this path, Wesley argued, Christians can experience a deepened relationship with God and a life of holiness, overflowing with love for both God and fellow human beings.

Contrary to the notion of exemption from the law, Wesley saw the concept of “freedom” in relation to the law as a liberating force that enables believers to fully embrace their love for God. In his optimistic view, the law becomes a guidepost that fuels their faith and empowers them to live joyfully and purposefully. According to Wesley, the call to fulfill the law is not burdensome, but rather an invitation to embrace abundant life and confidently walk in unwavering faith.

Wesley tied the incredible ministry of the Holy Spirit to the magnificent promises found throughout the Bible. These promises offer believers a profound assurance that God, in His unfathomable love, grants them the divine ability to wholeheartedly love Him, faithfully follow His commandments, and live in unwavering obedience. With the trans-formative power of the Holy Spirit, genuine followers of God are empowered to pursue righteousness and shine with a radiant holiness that resonates throughout their lives.

2. REFORMED VIEW

Reformed theologians define sanctification as “the benevolent operation of the Holy Spirit, necessitating our conscientious engagement, through which He liberates us as justified sinners from the contamination of sin, restores our entire being in accordance with the divine image, and empowers us to lead lives that are commendable before Him.”

Justification absolves us of our guilt in the sight of God, while sanctification entails the gradual elimination of the moral defilement caused by sin. This interpretation aligns with the etymology of the Greek term for sanctify, hagiadzo, which denotes the act of consecrating oneself and relinquishing behaviors that are displeasing to the Almighty.

In Reformed faith, there are three important aspects of the sanctification process. First and foremost, sanctification occurs as we grow in our relationship with Christ. By being united with Him, our spiritual journey is enriched. Secondly, the path to sanctification involves embracing and living by the truth. The Bible, as a divine guide, plays a vital role in shaping our character and leading us towards holiness. Lastly, faith acts as a powerful catalyst in our journey of sanctification. Through faith, we can embrace our identity in Christ, break free from the power of sin, and experience transformative growth. So, faith is not only the starting point but also the driving force behind our sanctification.

The primary objective of sanctification is the attainment of perfection, reflecting God’s desire for every individual within the Christian faith to be transformed into the likeness of Christ (1 John 3:2; 1 Corinthians 15:49; Ephesians 5:27; Hebrews 12:23). Through this process of conforming to His image, believers partake in the glorification of Christ and serve as a lasting testament to His divine majesty. In summary, sanctification serves as a means to ultimately bring glory to God.

In the realm of reformed faith, the initiation of our sanctification is brought forth by the sovereign act of God through election. Throughout scripture, all three persons of the trinity are depicted as actively involved in this process. It is revealed, for instance, that the Father disciplines and sanctifies us by means of truth (Hebrews 12:10, John 17:17), the Son purifies the church through the teachings of the Word (Ephesians 5:25-27), and the Holy Spirit is responsible for our regeneration, rebirth, and renewal (Titus 3:5). It is important to note that the roles assumed by each divine member in the sanctification process are not compartmentalized; rather, sanctification is attributed to the triune God without explicit designation of individual persons.

While sanctification is ultimately accomplished by God, it necessitates active cooperation on the part of individuals. We are called to strive against sin, express heartfelt gratitude towards God, and offer ourselves wholly to Him. Moreover, we are to emulate the example set by Christ (Philippians 2:5-7, John 13:14-15). The dynamic interplay between human responsibility and divine agency in conformity to Christ becomes evident in passages such as Philippians 2:12-13: “Work out your salvation with fear and trembling… for it is God who works in you, both to will and to work for his good pleasure.” Rather than merely cooperating with one another, our efforts and God’s workings are inseparably intertwined. As John Murray aptly stated, “God’s working in us is not suspended because we work, nor our working suspended because God works… the relationship is such that, because God works, we are enabled to work.”

Reformed theologians claim that scripture speaks about sanctification in two ways: as an ongoing process and as an accomplished event. The latter use can be seen in 1 Corinthians 1:2 and 6:11. In 1 Corinthians 1:2, believers are spoken of as “those who have been sanctified in Christ Jesus.” In 1 Corinthians 6:11, Paul says the Corinthians “were sanctified.” The Greek word for sanctify in 6:11, hagiadzo, is used by Paul in the aorist tense to emphasize that the Corinthian’s sanctification is a past, completed action. This statement, made to an audience that could hardly be called mature, implies that Christians are somehow sanctified in a way that has no bearing on the condition of their day-to-day life. Hoekema calls this use of hagiadzo “definitive sanctification.”

Romans 6, the passage with the most detail about definitive sanctification, teaches that Christians have been:

1. freed from the power of sin
2. enabled to live in newness of life under the reign of grace
3. unified with Christ in his resurrection
4. made new creatures

Definitive sanctification differs from Wesley’s notion of entire sanctification in two important ways. First, definitive sanctification does not produce sinless perfection in the Christian. Hoekema asserts that Christians will always “struggle against sin and sometimes fall into sin.”[29] A true believer is genuinely a new creature, but they are not fully transformed into Christ’s image. Second, definitive sanctification does not occur in an experience subsequent to salvation but rather coincides with it.

Reformed theologians have differed over the presence of the old and new self in the life of the believer. Standing with Murray, Hoekema believes that Christians are “no longer the old selves they once were. They are not, as has often been taught, both old selves and new selves but are indeed new selves in Christ.”[31] He makes his case by citing:

1. the crucifixion of the old self in Romans 6:6
2. the use of the aorist tense in Colossians 3:9-10 to describe how Christians have taken off their old self and put on their new self
3. the New International Version’s rendition of Ephesians 4:20-24 which implies that the old self was put off when we came to know Christ

Christians are new creatures – not sinless, nor totally conformed to the image of Christ, but genuinely new people headed in that direction. This is why we are still repeatedly urged in the New Testament to fight sin and the influence of evil in our lives (Ephesians 6:11-13; Galatians 5:16; Hebrews 12:4).

THE LAW
Reformed theologians believe that the law (the 10 commandments and other precepts given to guide our lives) should be obeyed by Christians. Christians who fail to keep the law do not face God’s condemnation (in this sense, they are not “under the law”), but they should express their thankfulness to God by attempting to keep it. John Calvin called this the “third and principle use of the law.”

At the turn of the 20th century, when their movement started, Pentecostals disagreed over the way sanctification occurs in the life of a believer. Holiness Pentecostals asserted that before one can receive the baptism of the Holy Spirit,[37] they must first undergo the crisis experience of entire sanctification. This type of sanctification was seen as a definitive work of God’s grace that a believer receives much in the same way he receives salvation.

Other Pentecostals (like those who later formed the Assemblies of God) argued that putting one’s faith in Christ’s forgiveness is the only precondition for receiving the baptism of the Holy Spirit. They downplayed the importance of a second (or third) work of grace in which Christians are entirely sanctified, and instead viewed sanctification as process.

Further refinement of the Pentecostal understanding of sanctification grew out of disagreements over the nature of the trinity. In 1916, trinitarian disputes compelled the Assemblies of God to clearly delineate their beliefs in the form of a 16-point statement of faith. This document touched on sanctification, but leaders soon recognized that the definition provided was vague and poorly formulated. Over time, however, the definition of sanctification was fleshed out. Instead of entire sanctification, they favored instantaneous sanctification (see 1 Cor. 6:11-12) and progressive sanctification (2 Cor. 3:15), that is, that Christians are positionally sanctified at conversion but then progressively sanctified over the course of their lives. The distinction between instantaneous and progressive sanctification, promoted by the Assemblies of God, moved away from the belief in entire sanctification espoused by the Holiness wing of the Pentecostal movement.

The bulk of Horton’s essay explains the view of sanctification being taught today in the Assemblies of God and focuses on the meaning of instantaneous, progressive, and entire sanctification.

INSTANTANEOUS/POSITIONAL SANCTIFICATION
Instantaneous or positional sanctification is similar to the Reformed notion of definitive sanctification. This type of sanctification:

occurs at the moment of belief
involves the believer being set apart from the world to follow Christ
is symbolized by baptism (Col. 2:11-12)
occurs because we are united with Christ and given new life (1 Cor. 1:30)
puts us in perfect relationship with God
sets Christians free to do God’s will
is based on the finished work of Christ
PROGRESSIVE SANCTIFICATION
Horton cites a number of verses to show that Christians don’t always measure up to their positional sanctification. He points out that the Corinthians, despite being called sanctified in 1 Cor. 6:11, were still addressed as “infants” in 1 Cor. 3:1. Other passages indicate that self-control needs to be learned (1 Thes. 4:3-4), and that old habits, like lying, must be renounced (Col. 3:5-10).

While Wesleyans claim they have been released from willful sin through entire sanctification, Horton believes these claims result in “making God out to be a liar.”[38] He also holds that the blood of Christ cleanses us from our sin in an ongoing way. This is in contrast to the notion that there is no need for Christians to repeatedly seek to be cleansed from their sins.

What does progressive sanctification look like? According to Horton, Christians moving forward in this process regularly put God’s will into practice, demonstrate the fruits of obedience, and exhibit a selfless willingness to do whatever God asks them to do.

ENTIRE SANCTIFICATION
Pentecostals in the Assemblies of God reject Holiness claims to be able to reach a state of sinless perfection in this life. They contend that the old nature is still active in a Christian and that claims of perfection depend on a weakened definition of sin. Despite these objections, however, they still use the term “entire sanctification.” Instead of abandoning the term, they redefine it as:

1. following the purposes and desires of God to the best of one’s ability
   or
2. an event that occurs when Christ comes back and gives us glorified bodies.

Thus, the term entire sanctification is being used here in a way that is entirely different than Wesley’s usage.

THE SPIRIT’S WORK IN SANCTIFICATION
Pentecostals, mindful that the work of the Holy Spirit is often neglected by other theological schools, are quick to point out the role the Spirit plays in sanctification.

Horton believes that of all the works of the Spirit, the New Testament highlights sanctification foremost. “The Holy Spirit here is the agent, and His work is the most important means of our progressive sanctification.”[39] To underscore his point, he cites numerous verses that teach the central role that the Holy Spirit plays in our growth (1 Cor. 6:11; 2 Thes. 2:13; Rom. 15:16; 1 Peter 1:1-2).

One of the most important ways that the Holy Spirit helps sanctify Christians is by helping them to understand and benefit from the Word of God. The Word itself is the Spirit’s primary tool in accomplishing our growth and maturity. The Spirit teaches us the Word, guides us to the truth (John 14:17,26; 15:26; 16:12-13; 1 John 4:6) and uses the Word to “give us a clear vision of Jesus and inspire us with a deep desire to be like him.”[40] Of course, Christians must cooperate with the Spirit’s work in their lives by depending on his Word for guidance and being willing to obey it.

BAPTISM OF THE HOLY SPIRIT
Perhaps the most unique feature of Pentecostal theology, and the one that distinguishes it from other views on sanctification, is the emphasis placed on the baptism of the Holy Spirit. This event occurs in the life of a Christian after their salvation and “empowers (them) through the filling of the Spirit.”[41] Those who receive this baptism initially speak in tongues (Acts 10:46) and go on to lead lives of service “marked by gifts of the Spirit that bring power and wisdom for the spread of the Gospel and the growth of the church.”[42]

Horton is quick to dispel misconceptions about the baptism of the Holy Spirit. He agrees that it is not necessary for salvation and that those who receive it may never have a continuing ministry of speaking tongues in the church. But he warns that “rejection of the Pentecostal position and the evidence of other tongues often leads to a downward trend that ends in the neglect of the Spirit’s work in the believer’s life.” In other words, it is hard to experience the full life we were meant to have as Christians without undergoing this baptism.

Having said that, Horton admits that being baptized in the Holy Spirit is not a sanctifying experience in and of itself. It doesn’t elevate one to a higher level of sanctification like Wesley’s entire sanctification. Christians still need to deepen in maturity and grow as they become more involved in selfless ministry to other people.

SUMMARY
Holiness and Assemblies of God Pentecostals agree that justification and positional sanctification occur at the same time. They also agree that both man and God play a role in Christian growth. They differ as to the definition of entire sanctification and whether it is possible to live a life free from sin. The Assemblies of God maintain that sin is not entirely removed in the life of a believer and that sanctification is a long process of growth and change. Holiness Pentecostals tend to view sanctification as a defining, post-conversion event in the life of a Christian.

THE KESWICK PERSPECTIVE – PRESENTED BY J. ROBERTSON MCQUILKIN
According to J. Robertson McQuilkin, and those who hold the Keswick view, the normal Christian life should be one of progress and victory: victory over temptation, growth in obedience, improving in self-control, and increasing in joy. Unfortunately, the average Christian experience is far from normal. Church-goers are adept at moving through the routines of the Christian life, yet they show no excitement or evidence that anything supernatural is going on.

What can Christians do to break out of this malaise? The Keswick view offers a message of hope to defeated and backslidden Christians. Since 1875, proponents of this view have offered four- and five-day conferences focusing on the spiritual renewal of those who attend. These conferences expose those attending to the depth of their sin, teach them a way to live a victorious life, and challenge them to fully commit their lives to God and to His service. A typical conference schedule includes:

Day 1: Sin – understanding the gravity of our shortcomings before God.
Day 2: Victorious Christian living – the power of the Holy Spirit and the finished work of Christ to bring “consistent success in resisting the temptation to violate deliberately the known will of God.”[49]
Day 3: Consecration – the full surrender of one’s life to God to be used by Him.
Day 4: Life in the Spirit – Being filled with the Spirit – the key to effectiveness in our life and service for God.
Day 5: Service – Missions, the Great Commission and other outward ways to serve God.

KESWICK THEOLOGY
Since Keswick organizers and attendees have come from a variety of theological persuasions, the Keswick view has no official or well-defined statement on sanctification. Despite this, the core values and emphases of the Keswick movement are well summarized in the following quote from Steven Barabas:

“From the beginning until the very present (the Keswick Movement) has taught that a life of faith and victory, of peace and rest, are the rightful heritage of every child of God, and that he may step into it …, ‘not by long prayers and laborious effort, but by a deliberate and decisive act of faith.’ It teaches that ‘the normal experience of the child of God should be one of victory instead of constant defeat, one of liberty instead of grinding bondage, one of ‘perfect peace’ instead of restless worry.'”[50]

THE KESWICK VIEW AND PERFECTIONISM
The Keswick movement has no clear stance on perfectionism. McQuilkin claims that the Spirit makes it possible for Christians to consistently avoid deliberate violations of God’s will. And, like the Wesleyans, McQuilkin believes there is a biblical basis for making a distinction between willful, deliberate sin and unwitting sin. He claims a distinction is clearly made in the Old Testament (see Exod. 21:12-14; Num. 15:27-31) and is implied in several New Testament passages (see 1 John 1:8-10 and 1 John 3:6,8-10). In day to day life, however, McQuilkin concedes that distinguishing between volitional and involuntary sin is difficult. Departing from the Wesleyan view, he concludes that a definition of sin should include all types (deliberate and accidental) and expectations of perfection in this life are more frustrating for sincere Christians than helpful.

Even though McQuilkin believes everyone sins (1 John 1:8-10), he takes a dim view of Christians who continue in a pattern of sinful activity. He suggests that they are probably not Christians (1 John 3:6;8-10). In other words, everyone sins unintentionally but ongoing deliberate sin is evidence that someone is not genuinely converted. He goes as far as to say, “(Christians) need never – and should never – deliberately violate the known will of God.”[51] Although he never says it directly, the implication is that if a pattern of sin is established in the life of a Christian, part of the healing process is reconsidering the validity of one’s original conversion experience.

However, McQuilkin does concede that believers still have a tendency to sin and must constantly rely on the Holy Spirit to lean against this tendency. He attributes this attraction to sin to the “old nature” and affirms that our old nature remains in conflict with the indwelling Holy Spirit even after conversion. It is because of their old nature that committed Christians still commit unintentional sins. Growth in the Christian life, then, is focused on minimizing the damage caused by the sin nature in the area of involuntary sin. As McQuilkin puts it, “… much of our behavior falls short of Christ likeness involuntarily and even unconsciously. It is in this area that the normal Christian grows steadily to reflect more and more accurately the likeness of Christ.”[52]

THE KESWICK DEFINITION OF SANCTIFICATION
Like most of the theologians in Five Views of Sanctification, McQuilkin defines sanctification as a setting apart for service to God. And, like the others, he says a moral dimension is involved: those who are sanctified are set apart from sin and consecrated to God.

McQuilkin then breaks sanctification down into three main types: positional, experiential, and permanent sanctification. Positional sanctification occurs at conversion and results in our forgiveness, justification in God’s eyes and regeneration. The new life of the Spirit indwells new believers and makes it possible for righteousness to prevail over sin in their lives. This is the sanctification spoken of in Heb. 10:10, Eph. 4:24, and 1 Cor. 1:2; 6:11.

Experiential sanctification is very similar to the reformed idea of progressive sanctification. McQuilkin defines it as “the outworking of one’s official position in daily life.”[53] When we are given our new bodies and transformed to be like Christ, permanent sanctification occurs. It results in the complete removal of sin.

In parts of his essay, McQuilkin describes sanctification as a process of growth that occurs over time in the life of a Christian (2 Cor. 3:18, Col. 3:10, Eph. 4:15,16, 1 Thes. 4:1,10)[54] . However, he also believes the process is aided by a crisis experience in which a Christian is profoundly struck by the depth of his sin, made aware of God’s provision for victorious living, challenged to commit his whole person to Him, and taught to serve out of the fullness of the Holy Spirit. McQuilkin says, for the backslidden Christian, “reentry into normal, supernatural Christian living is through the gate of surrender.”[55] He adds, “for such a person, a normal, successful Christian experience is not the product of a gradual process of spiritual development, let alone automatic progress. A decisive turning point is needed.”[56]

Like the other four views of sanctification, McQuilkin believes sanctification brings about changes in the way we act (1 Cor. 6:9-10) and the way we think (Rom. 12:1,2). The overall effect is that our lives more and more approximate the likeness of Christ.

IGNORANCE AND UNBELIEF: THE CAUSE OF SPIRITUAL FAILURE
More than other the other views we have studied so far, the Keswick view of sanctification seeks to address the problem of the stumbling or back-sliding Christian. According to McQuilkin, spiritual failure results from two main causes: ignorance and unbelief.

Some Christians are ignorant of their ability to live victorious lives. They are not aware of the provisions God has made to enable them to conduct a vital walk with Him. Usually, though, struggling Christians are defeated by unbelief. According to McQuilkin, unbelief is the root cause of disobedience and lack of faith. Disobedient Christians, for example, often are afraid to trust God because they do not believe what He says. For some, this leads to outward rebellion, but most drift away from God through sins of omission and a failure to pursue Him. Christians who lack faith are reluctant to depend on God’s power for ministry. Their fundamental unbelief and distrust of God leads them to rely on themselves in an attempt to attain godliness through their own power.

THE CURE FOR SPIRITUAL FAILURE
Whatever the cause, McQuilkin’s solution to a subnormal Christian experience is faith. “Simple faith is the secret.”[57] Faith is the ultimate answer to the question of sin in the life of the believer. No one can bring about his own sanctification. It is only as we place our faith in God and His resources that we can experience a victorious Christian life.

McQuilkin defines simple faith as “a choice to commit all of oneself unconditionally to the person of God, who is revealed in the Bible and witnessed to by the Holy Spirit.”[58] This is in contrast to “false faith,” which occurs when the object of faith is someone or something other than God, or when faith is not a commitment of the whole person. The commitment inherent in sanctifying faith is demonstrated by a willingness to step out, in obedience to the truth, to do God’s will. This commitment to do God’s will, is, according to McQuilkin, “the most important evidence of faith.”[59]

Those who continue in deliberate violation of God’s will are not exercising faith and for them, no growth is possible. They must first surrender to God and obey him. This need for surrender often results in a crisis in the life of Christians. Accustomed to living as they see fit, they are forced to decide if they will abandon rebellion and make a decision to wholly commit to God. This crisis does not arise in the life of every Christian, but from McQuilkin’s experience it does more often than not.

FILLING OF THE SPIRIT
When someone becomes a Christian, Christ gives them the indwelling presence of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. As a result, a process of change is initiated with a view to the renewal of the person in the image of God. Now, for the first time, they have the ability to choose against sin. With God’s power they are able to follow Him. This new power, mediated through the Spirit, is available to Christians through a process called “filling.” McQuilkin explores the meaning of the phrase “filling of the Spirit” and advances a definition centered around the concept of control:

“Filled with the Spirit is a figurative, poetic expression that refers primarily to the relationship between two persons in which one is in charge.”[60]

“(filled with the Spirit) means that the Holy Spirit dominates, has full control, possesses… though the dominion (is) gracious, by invitation only, and does not… override one’s personal choice.”[61]

McQuilkin is not clear in his essay as to the duration of this experience. He says that the expression “filled with the Spirit” refers to a “state or condition” and that “we are commanded to be filled continually.”[62]

McQuilkin concludes that being filled with the Spirit is the key to living an effective and victorious Christian life. Additionally, there may be times of special empowering that go above and beyond normal filling. These special empowerings enable Christians to serve effectively in more challenging situations.

THE MEANS OF GROWTH
According to the Keswick view, sanctification is facilitated by the means of growth: prayer, learning the scripture, fellowship and suffering. Each of these avenues are used by God to bring us into conformity with Him. In the midst of suffering, for example, Christians are presented with an opportunity to look to God for the good he can perform and to grow in dependence on Him. McQuilkin also points out that the means of growth should be pursued aggressively and with the realization that God is the one bringing about change.

The impact of the means of growth on individuals varies widely. As a result, Christians should resist the temptation to measure their own growth in comparison with others and should instead keep before them the example of Christ.

SUMMARY
Over the years, the Keswick movement has drawn inspiration from leaders of a variety of theological perspectives. For this reason, McQuilkin sees the Keswick view as a mediating position on sanctification that avoids the extremes of some views. He concludes that it has a balanced perspective on the Biblical data and much to contribute to the discussion on sanctification.

THE AUGUSTINIAN-DISPENSATIONAL VIEW – PRESENTED BY JOHN WALVOORD
According to John Walvoord, differences in the various approaches to sanctification center mainly on the degree to which a person is transformed after becoming a Christian. Some say that at conversion people are completely changed. Others argue that vestiges of their old life remain. At the center of the debate is the term “nature” and, more specifically, “sin nature.” Walvoord maintains that differences of opinion can be resolved if these terms are more carefully defined.

In contrast to a substantive use of the word “nature,”[67] Walvoord’s definition of “sin nature” focuses more on a Christian’s capacity for or inclination towards sin. This can be seen in Walvoord’s definition: “The concept of a sin nature can probably best be summarized as a complex of human attributes that demonstrate a desire and predisposition to sin.”[68]

Walvoord also discusses the relationship between the sin nature and the terms “flesh” and “old man/ new man.” He believes that Augustine’s concept of the flesh is synonymous with the biblical use of sin nature. Here, the flesh is seen as that which remains in a person following his conversion. Walvoord takes a different approach with the old man/ new man language used in Colossians 3 and Ephesians 4. He says these terms shouldn’t be confused with the sinful nature and the new nature inside a Christian. Old man/ new man instead refers to the change of lifestyle that occurs when someone is saved; Christians lay aside their old manner of life and put on a new one. Sin nature and new nature, by contrast, refer to a state of being, not just a lifestyle. Walvoord points out:

“Once a person is saved, the spiritual state of that person includes a new nature and an old nature… The believer still has an old nature – a complex of attributes with an inclination and disposition to sin; and the new nature… a complex of attributes… (that) incline and dispose the Christian to a new manner of life, one that is holy in the sight of God.”[69]

Like proponents of the Reformed view, Augustinian-Dispensationalists affirm that a sin nature, or sinful tendency, exists in the life of every Christian (see Rom. 7:14-25 and Gal. 5:16-17). Because Walvoord maintains that an old nature is still present, he believes that Christians may progress in their sanctification, but that they will never be free from sin in this life.

REGENERATION AND THE BAPTISM OF THE HOLY SPIRIT
Walvoord says that two things occur at conversion: regeneration and the baptism of the Holy Spirit. Regeneration occurs at the point of conversion, involves the granting of eternal life and the new nature, and moves a Christian from spiritual death to life. It does not, as some suggest, “bring perfection of character or freedom from a sin nature.”[70] The baptism of the Holy Spirit, spoken of in 1 Corinthians 12:13, is the placement, at the moment of conversion, of the convert into the body of Christ. When we are identified with Christ in this way, we share in his death, burial, and resurrection (Rom. 6:1-4; Col. 2:12). As a result, we can utilize God’s power and guidance for our lives. This experience was inaugurated on the day of Pentecost and occurs to anyone the moment they repent and turn to Christ.

THE INDWELLING AND FILLING OF THE HOLY SPIRIT
All Christians, at the point of conversion, are indwelled by the Holy Spirit. The Spirit’s indwelling is God’s first phase in His plan to conform us to His image. It is also the basis for our sanctification, because through the Spirit we receive spiritual gifts and the power to live effective Christian lives. This indwelling ministry of the Holy Spirit is unique to the church age (the period of time following the day of Pentecost) and is qualitatively different than the pre-Pentecost ministry of the Spirit (see John 7:37-39).

While all Christians can be said to be indwelled by the Holy Spirit, not all have been filled by the Spirit. Walvoord defines the filling of the Spirit as “the unhindered ministry of the Holy Spirit in the life of a Christian.”[71] Unlike the baptism of the Holy Spirit, which is a one-time event that permanently places us in Christ, filling is a temporary state, an experience that Christians should regularly seek to have. This is implied by the present continuous tense of Ephesians 5:18: “Don’t be drunk with wine, for that is dissipation, but be filled (or, ‘go on being filled’) with the Holy Spirit.”

When someone is filled with the Spirit, they are empowered to carry out the will of God. This is evident from numerous passages that describe the Spirit’s filling (including Acts 2:4; 4:8,31; 6:3,5; 7:55; 9:17; 11:24). Much in the same way that alcohol permeates our body and effects the way we act, when one is filled with the Spirit, the Spirit is in control. Walvoord writes that being filled by the Spirit “brings for the time being a control of a believer’s life by the Holy Spirit and the infusion of spiritual power, enabling a Christian to do far more than he or she could do naturally.”[72]

Becoming filled by the Holy Spirit is a matter of yielding oneself wholly to God. This yielding must occur both in the area of God’s revealed will and in accepting the life circumstances that God has placed us in. According to Paul, in Romans 6, believers must choose whether they will yield themselves to God or to sin. When someone fully places his life under God’s control (e.g. Rom. 12:1-2) the Spirit is given free reign to empower him. A good example of this attitude can be seen in Philippians 2:5-11 when Jesus completely submits in obedience to God and places all trust in Him.

When Christians stumble and sin, the indwelling Spirit is grieved (Ephesians 4:30) and is hindered in His ability to minister to them. But there is no danger of loss of salvation; the person still remains indwelled by the Spirit. Instead, Christians should confess their sins to God and appropriate the forgiveness that Jesus obtained for them on the cross.

According to Walvoord, living an effective Christian life requires that we cultivate an attitude of continuous dependence on the power of the Spirit to energize us and make us effective for service. When we turn from God and continue in sin, we won’t be filled with the Spirit. Instead of experiencing power, we will experience God’s corrective discipline (1 Cor. 11:31-32; Heb. 12:5-6). But if we yield our selves fully to him, he will fill us with the Holy Spirit, and do things through us we could never do on our own.

THE RESULTING EXPERIENCE OF PROGRESSIVE SANCTIFICATION
Christians who put their full trust in God and walk in dependence on the Spirit’s power may never attain to God’s standard of perfection in this life, but they can expect to steadily grow in sanctification. The Holy Spirit makes this possible by giving us increasing assurance of our salvation, providing insight into God’s will for our lives, helping us to worship and pray, and using us as a channel of His life in our service to others. The fruit of the Spirit (Gal. 5:22-23) is evidence that this process is occurring and the result is that “a mighty work for God can be accomplished”[73] in the life of the believer.

GOD AND MAN’S ROLE IN SANCTIFICATION
Walvoord maintains that some Calvinists have overemphasized God’s sovereignty, not just in relation to conversion but also in their view of sanctification. He claims that this imbalance has had detrimental effect, making some Calvinists reluctant to carry out the great commission. This reluctance, Walvoord says, stems from a belief that minimizes human responsibility (e.g. “If God has elected some to salvation, they will surely be saved regardless of our efforts.”).[74] A Calvinist himself, Walvoord sees a need to balance an emphasis on God’s sovereignty with the awareness that human choices have a critical impact on Christian growth. Walvoord writes, “God is the sanctifier… however… people are responsible for responding to the truth of God and to the work of the Holy Spirit.”[75]

ULTIMATE PERFECTION
Walvoord says we are destined, eventually, to be conformed to the image of Christ and perfectly sanctified, regardless of our present shortcomings. Sanctification in this life is shaped by our choices and will never be complete, but scripture promises the full removal of sin and imperfection from our lives when we stand before God (Eph. 5:25-27; 1 John 3:2). In light of this, Walvoord concludes that “sanctification is the work of God for human beings rather than our work for him.” In the future, we will be conformed to the image of Christ and reflect His glory. Then, all of the credit for that work will go to God.

Theology of Housing/Christian Perspective on Housing/ Improving Lives and Building Community in the Suburbs

Below are a series of introspective questions that have recently incited significant discussions regarding the matter of housing:

1. What is the deeper meaning behind the act of “owning” and “managing” land through Land Banking and Community Land Trusts?
2. In what ways can housing policies create spaces that promote hospitality and enable people to thrive?
3. Is there a particular Christian value attached to owning property versus renting? Or vice versa?
4. How should the government engage in development of neighborhood policies?
5. What does the concept of ‘home’ truly signify?
6. What does justice mean from a Christian perspective? How does it relate to the notion of housing fairness?
7. What is the theological viewpoint on embracing risks in the context of Jesus’ command to love our neighbors?

Housing holds deep significance for everyone. It goes beyond a mere physical structure, as it becomes an essential part of our identity and well-being. In the words of acclaimed architect Christopher Day, housing is the “third human skin” after our own skin and clothing. It plays a vital role in shaping our spiritual and emotional experiences and there is a deep connection between biblical theology, land, and the collective choices we make when it comes to housing.

THEOLOGY OF HOUSING

The discipline of theology encompasses far more than mere scholarly contemplation; it is a profound exploration of the intricate dynamics between human beings and the divine. It entails a dedicated pursuit of knowledge and effective articulation of concepts pertaining to God with unwavering diligence. The bedrock of theological inquiry lies in personal encounters with spiritual transformation, which serves as the catalyst for an unceasing quest to fathom the depths of divine truth. The early theologians of Christianity were individuals of resolute commitment, whose lives were forever altered by their profound engagement with the Redeemer. Their writings and teachings stand as lasting testimony to their deep dedication in comprehending and conveying the profound impact of this trans-formative experience.

Throughout the expanse of human history, theologians have fearlessly embarked upon an expansive journey of intellectual exploration, delving into the uncharted realms of scripture, history, social sciences, languages, and comparative religion. Their unyielding commitment to this multidimensional approach empowers them with profound insights, illuminating guidance, and unwavering inspiration to fervent adherents who seek to deepen their connection with God’s divine revelation. With Jesus Christ as the guiding beacon, theology of Housing emerges as a potent force capable of effecting trans-formative change in our Christian perception of housing and community. Embracing the daily realities of housing policy in our contemporary world, theologians and church leaders boldly undertake the task of crafting a robust theology that not only informs but also shapes government housing initiatives, ensuring their seamless alignment with the unwavering vision of the Christian faith.

HOUSE IS WHERE HOME IS

Christians throughout the ages have cherished the home as the very heartbeat of life itself. Within the walls of a house turned into a home, dreams take flight and heroes are forged. It is a sacred sanctuary, a haven where weary souls find solace and embark on their extraordinary journeys toward the heavens above.

Home is more than just bricks and mortar; it is the crucible in which virtue is nurtured and cultivated. Conversations meander through its corridors, laughter echoes within its rooms, and the tantalizing aroma of hearty meals fills the air. In the face of life’s trials, it is our anchor, our rock. Whether you are a wide-eyed child, eager to explore the wonders of literacy, a young adventurer stepping into the world from a dormitory, newlyweds embarking on their maiden voyage of marital bliss, ambitious souls launching careers, or a loving family united under one roof, the embers of comfort and warmth found within the confines of home are the very essence of stability. Embrace the magic of home, for it is here that memories are crafted, dreams are nurtured, and the human spirit soars.

PITFALLS IN HOUSING

In a world where many hold the belief that home is a sanctuary, a refuge from the hardships of life, let us not overlook the harsh reality for others. Sadly, some individuals find themselves trapped in houses of horrors, where abuse, violence, and manipulation run rampant. For them, the notion of home brings nothing but despair and the desperate need for escape. Additionally, there are those who have never known the luxury of a permanent roof over their heads, let alone the comfort of a cozy fireplace. As Christians engage in discussions about the significance of home, it’s important to acknowledge that every heart, and consequently every household, is tainted by the stain of sin. While many might cling to the idea of finding solace within the confines of a well-manicured yard, our ultimate hope lies not in the boundaries of a picket fence, but in a higher power, the one who can truly be our eternal dwelling place (Psalm 90:1).

When contemplating a theology of home, it is imperative to avoid falling into two extremes. Firstly, we must not wrongly convey that life confined within the walls of our homes is all-encompassing. Such a perspective would distort our understanding of eschatology. While it is important to nurture our domestic lives, we must also actively engage with the wider world, filling the pews of the church and journeying along the highways of society. Jesus’ command to “go” in the Great Commission reminds us that we cannot settle for an earthly paradise; if we confine ourselves solely to the comforts of home, we risk conforming the kingdom of God to our own preferences and traditions. We strive to make disciples of all nations because Christ’s kingdom transcends earthly realms (John 18:36). Like Abraham, we look forward to a city with firm foundations, a city designed and built by God Himself (Heb. 11:10).

The idealization and idolization of home is a common tendency, but let’s not forget that it’s essential not to undermine the importance of life within its walls. We must be cautious not to succumb to an overly privatized sociology, where we believe that our private lives have no influence on our public actions. It seems that we have fallen into the trap of separating conviction and character from policy and productivity in the modern world. Consequently, what happens behind closed doors is deemed irrelevant to success in the outside world. However, as Christians, we should recognize that our private spaces, such as the prayer closet and the kitchen table, play a crucial role in cultivating excellence in all aspects of life. Our perspective on productivity is intricately connected to our view of piety. It’s worth noting that the partition between the private and the public holds no significance in the eyes of an all-knowing God (Job 34:21). Our conduct should reflect holiness as He is holy (1 Peter 1:15), regardless of the setting.

The plight of individuals with disabilities who find themselves without a home or on the brink of homelessness is a deeply distressing reality. They face immense obstacles in accessing the necessary support and resources they desperately need. These individuals often grapple with debilitating mental health issues, addiction struggles, traumatic experiences, and complex medical conditions, which severely hinder their ability to secure stable employment. It is an arduous journey to reclaim their lives when the most fundamental needs are constantly out of reach. Providing them with essential income and healthcare benefits is not just a stepping stone, but a crucial lifeline towards their path of recovery and restoration.

LAND BANKING

Land banking involve property developers acquiring parcels of land with the intention of subdividing them into smaller blocks for sale to investors. These schemes often incorporate specific investment guidelines that outline the rights and responsibilities of buyers and sellers. These guidelines encompass contractual durations, option provisions, and exit clauses that are designed to safeguard the interests of all parties involved. It is essential, as with any real estate investment, to conduct thorough due diligence to ascertain ownership and preempt potential legal complexities.

In Kenya, land banks are quasi-governmental entities established by counties or municipalities to effectively manage and repurpose an inventory of underutilized, abandoned, or foreclosed properties. The Ministry of Lands and Physical Planning, in partnership with the National Land Commission, established a committee with clear terms of reference to establish a land bank. According to the National Land Policy of 1999, land banking is a process through which the government can hold identified geo-referenced land pieces for accessibility by investors and government projects.

I like to think that Land banking is an investment structure in real estate that involves the purchase of large tracts of undeveloped land, which is later sold at a profit. It is important to note that a land bank can also refer to a financial institution that provides financing for land development or farm mortgages. Additionally, real estate developers often purchase the land, subdivide it, and offer the plots for sale to investors who have the option to buy a plot or acquire an option to purchase one.

Investors in land banking strategies carefully project the future potential of an area, taking into account the rising demand for properties near urban centers. By purchasing land at affordable rates and selling it at a profit, they capitalize on the increased value over time. This investment approach is commonly observed in the suburbs of major cities. An example of historical significance can be traced back over 500 years ago when John Jacob Astor acquired a large tract of land in Manhattan, subsequently selling it at a substantial profit.

COMMUNITY LAND TRUST

The community Land Trust (CLT) is an alternative ‘housing’ tenure model in which a nonprofit corporation holds land in trust on behalf of a place-based community, provides long term stewardship, and facilitates democratic community control over development.

A Community Land Trust (CLT) is defined as a non-profit organization that is dedicated to acquiring, developing, and managing local assets for the exclusive benefit of the surrounding community. The primary objective of a CLT is to acquire land and property, which is then held in trust for the long-term benefit of the defined locality or community. The distinguishing feature of a CLT is the separation of land ownership from property ownership, with the former held by the Trust and the latter belonging to the residents. This model ensures sustainable community development and empowers local inhabitants to have a stake in their neighborhood’s prosperity (Diacon, Clarke et al., as cited in Cabannes, 2013). Different countries may have specific legal definitions for CLTs, but the core premise remains consistent across contexts (Davis, 2010).

Community Land Trusts (CLTs) have their roots in the USA, where they were established to address the pressing issue of affordable housing for disadvantaged communities, particularly African-American communities. These initiatives emerged alongside anti-segregation struggles in the Southern region of the country. One of the earliest CLTs, called “New Communities Inc.”, was founded in Georgia in 1969. Over time, this model gained recognition and spread throughout the nation and eventually, in 1992, it was even formally regulated by law.

The concept behind CLTs draws influence from traditional tenures in Africa, as well as American philosophy (such as that of Henry George) and experiments from the 1970s, along with the ideals of the Garden City movement. Nowadays, CLTs can be found not only in the United States (especially in Vermont) and Europe (including Great Britain, France, and Belgium), but also in countries such as Kenya, Puerto Rico, and Bolivia through various pilot projects and local initiatives.

In CLT projects, the aim is to “lock” the appreciation of land value within the community by implementing various measures. Firstly, the CLT holds the land indefinitely, effectively removing it from the speculative market. Secondly, any gains made from selling property within the CLT are limited to a fraction of the increased value, ensuring that benefits are shared among the community. Lastly, each parcel of land within the CLT is subject to a preemption right, granting the CLT priority in purchasing the property when an owner decides to leave. These principles help to maintain affordable prices for several generations of inhabitants, while also promoting a sense of belonging and collective ownership. Some scholars even regard CLTs as a “modern commons” (Midheme et Moulaert, 2013), reflecting their community-driven and inclusive nature.

How Community Land Trusts Work

Community land trusts leverage both public and private investment funds to acquire land in service of a specific community. In perpetuity, the land remains under the ownership of the community land trust.

Under this arrangement, individuals within the community have the opportunity to purchase their homes, with the exception of the land itself. Instead, they enter into long-term property leases, commonly known as ground leases, with the community land trust. These ground leases are usually granted for a period of 99 years, and the associated monthly charges are typically nominal, often amounting to $100 or less.

While residents of community land trusts do not possess the ability to sell the land on which their homes are situated, they are imbued with the same rights as other homeowners. Throughout the duration of the ground lease, they enjoy exclusive and complete use of the property, along with the customary privacy and autonomy associated with homeownership.

Community land trusts offer a compelling alternative to the existing market system, providing a viable avenue to establish resilient, affordable housing and other essential community assets. By directly addressing socioeconomic disparities and empowering communities to assert control over their land, community land trusts make a significant contribution to the pursuit of a more just and equitable society.

Community land trusts, however, cannot single-handedly resolve issues such as poverty, housing instability, or entrenched societal inequalities, they embody a robust mechanism for mitigating the adverse impacts of these challenges on marginalized individuals.

CLT IS NOT KIBBUTZIM

During the early 1900s in Israel, the Jewish National Fund initiated a practice wherein they acquired Palestinian land and subsequently leased it to Jewish settlers through 99-year ground leases. This endeavor led to the establishment of well-organized agricultural communities known as kibbutzim and moshavim. The moshavim, characterized by cooperative production, procurement, and enterprise, yet with individual ownership of residential properties, bore resemblance to the concept of Community Land Trusts (CLTs).

Leftist Ideology / Anti-Clericalism

Political ideology is the constitution of ideals, principles, and symbols that large groups of people identify with in their belief on how society should work. It’s also the foundation for political order.

Left-wing is a widely-used term for those who desire change, reform, and alteration to how society operates. Often this involves radical criticisms of capitalism made by liberal and socialist parties.

The separation between right and left started with the seating arrangements in the French Revolution in 17891 when the king’s supporters sat to the right and supporters of the revolution to the left. So, the terms left and right became distinctions between revolution and reaction.

According to Deputy Baron De Gaulle, the reason for the orientation was so the king’s supporters avoided “shouts, oaths, and indecencies” in the opposing camp. At the beginning of the 20th century, the terms left and right became associated with political ideologies:

1. Left for socialism and
2. Right for Suitable for conservatism.

Following the original concept,

1. Left-wing ideologies welcome change as a form of progress, while
2. Right-wing ideologies defend the status quo.

Socialism, Communism, and other leftist ideologies believe in a radical change among existing structures to overcome poverty and inequality.

Leftist ideology, or left-wing politics, is the umbrella term that supports egalitarianism, and social power over political institutions, eliminating social hierarchy and differences in ability between people.

Socialism and other left-wing ideologies gained momentum in the 19th century as a reaction to the socio-economic conditions in capitalist economies at the advent of the industrial revolution.

Even though this revolution increased productivity at a pace never seen in history, it created a new working class that lived in poverty and had terrible job conditions. In response, Karl Marx inspired the historic moment to develop Marxism, a philosophy that unifies social, economic, and political theories.

The Russian Revolution in 1917 saw the first significant attempt to apply socialist ideas created by Marx. Russia transformed into the Soviet Union, a political project that tried to overthrow capitalist structures and start a global revolution.

In the 1960s, Marxist-Leninist movements tried to challenge many Latin American governments through armed forces, stimulated and even financed by the socialist regime imposed in Cuba after the 1959 Cuban Revolution.

After the fall of the Berlin Wall and the collapse of the Soviet Union, socialist ideas suffered a heavy blow, as most socialist parties in the world disappeared or embraced thoughts associated with liberalism or even conservatism.

Anti-clericalism in government
The Protestant Reformation, which began in the 1500s, was seen by many as the first anticlerical movement in Europe. The Reformation resulted in the creation of Protestant Christian churches of various types, some of which became national churches, side lining the Roman Catholic Church. Whilst the reformation did not reject religion in its entirety, prominent Reformers questioned and rejected many practices of the Roman Catholic Church, particularly regarding the accumulation of wealth among the clergy. Despite this opposition to the Catholic Church and its abuse of power, in numerous instances the new national Protestant churches which were founded after the reformation enjoyed many of the same privileges as the Roman Catholic Church had enjoyed previously. So, whilst Protestantism brought about a change in how Christianity was practised, the Church still enjoyed a privileged position within society.

During the 19th century spread of Marxist and revolutionary ideas in Europe, Church authorities were identified as one of the principal defenders of the Capitalist order. Marx himself, in his Introduction to his Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right (1844), referred to religion as the “opium of the people”. Marx argued that religion was a set of beliefs constructed by man to explain and justify suffering and oppression. Marx believed that the struggle against the illusory happiness offered by religion would enable society to pursue real happiness.

As socialist and communist revolutionary movements started to gain traction in Europe and the Americas in the early 19th Century, many new governments started to implement anticlerical policies within their own societies.

The October Revolution of 1917 in Russia, and the subsequent formation of the Bolshevik Soviet Union, led to the unprecedented persecution of religious figures and institutions that lasted throughout the 1920s and 1930s. Many clerics were arrested and sent to labour camps in isolated parts of Russia, and many churches, mosques and other religious buildings were destroyed or else given over to secular use, such as barns, storage spaces, cinemas, theatres or museums. The authorities ran propaganda campaigns to discourage people from practising any form of religion. Only a handful of churches, monasteries, mosques, temples and religious seminaries were allowed to remain open.

Anti-clericalism also accompanied revolutionary movements in Latin America. In Mexico, tensions emerged after a new constitution was adopted in 1917 which included significant curbs on the activities of the Roman Catholic Church. In the 1920s, conflict broke out between supporters of the anti-Catholic government and supporters of the Roman Catholic Church. This conflict was known as the Cristero War after the Catholic rebels’ rallying cry of ‘Viva Cristo Rey’ – or ‘Long Live Christ the King!’

Another anti-clericalism example can be found in the Islamic country of Iran. In 1925, under the leadership of the Shah (King) Reza Khan Pahlavi, Iran became extremely anti-clerical. In a bid to westernise Iran, the Shah established an administration in which Islamic schools were secularised, Sharia Law (Islamic law) was abolished, and women were banned from wearing the hijab (head covering) in public. These reforms were later overturned after Iran’s Islamic Revolution in the 1970s.

CLASSICAL LIBERALISM

Classical liberalism is a political tradition and a branch of liberalism that advocates free market and laissez-faire economics; and civil liberties under the rule of law, with special emphasis on individual autonomy, limited government, economic freedom, political freedom and freedom of speech. Classical liberals in the United States believe that if the economy is left to the natural forces of supply and demand, free of government intervention, the result is the most abundant satisfaction of human wants. Modern classical liberals oppose the concepts of social democracy and the welfare state. Classical liberalism liked taxation with low taxes, low or no tariff, etc. • Modern liberalism liked high tax systems, many laws on businesses, high minimum wage laws, etc. 

LIBERAL CONSERVATISM

Liberal conservatism is the opposite of classical liberalism, a belief that supports both economic and individual freedom. This term should not be confused for conservative liberalism, which is an offshoot of liberalism, not conservatism. Conservative liberalism, also referred to as right-liberalism, is a variant of liberalism, combining liberal values and policies with conservative stances, or simply representing the right-wing of the liberal movement. Liberal conservatives believe in the free market and laissez-faire economic policies combined with traditional conservative values, such as the belief in natural inequality, the importance of religion, and the value of traditional morality. Positive liberty is the possession of the power and resources to act in the context of the structural limitations of the broader society which impacts a person’s ability to act, as opposed to negative liberty, which is freedom from external restraint on one’s actions.

Feudal System, Aristocracy,

Feudalism is a term that refers to the socio-political system that structured society in Europe during the High Medieval Ages, ranging from 1000 AD to 1300 AD. The term was not used during this period but was coined by historians in the 18th century to easily reference the system.

In short, the system was based around the ownership of land by kings and lords who would allow lesser lords, vassals, and peasants to live on and cultivate the land in exchange for legal and military commitments.

The fall of the Western Roman Empire had far-reaching consequences that reverberated across Europe in the 5th century CE. The demise of the once mighty Christian Emperor in Ravenna left a void of power and control. In the wake of this power vacuum, influential Germanic warlords ascended to prominence, exerting their dominance over various regions of Western Europe. Drawing upon the foundations of Germanic, Christian, and Roman traditions, a new system of governance began to take shape, characterized by obligations of service and loyalty. This sacred bond between vassal and lord, often referred to as a liege, carried significant weight and significance for both parties involved. It bound them together not only in a temporal sense but also in a spiritual one. Over time, these oaths and obligations evolved into what we now recognize as feudalism or feudal society. It should be noted, however, that feudalism was not uniformly practiced throughout Western Europe, with distinct variations existing among different feudal societies. Nevertheless, at its core, every feudal society revolved around the key principles of unwavering loyalty and voluntary subordination, not just to one’s lord but also to a higher power—God.

Feudalism and feudal societies did not spring up overnight. Instead they were formed, somewhat incrementally, by the inclusion of Roman, German and Christian traditions. While a soldier in the Later Roman Empire was possibly a Christian his service was temporal and predicated upon payment for services rendered, as was the Germanic warrior of the same and later periods. Without the inclusion of the Christian ideal of service, a truly feudal society would never have emerged in Western Europe. It was the duty of a good peasant to faithfully serve his lord (knight). The knight of Medieval Europe served God by his true and faithful service to his Lord. His Lord in turn provided true and faithful service to his king and in turn was obligated to the righteous lordship of his vassals- thus in a spiritual (as well as temporal) sense the master became the servant. By extension, more in concept than actual practice, the king who held the allegiances of those below him became a servant of his own kingdom, subject to the laws of God and his own oaths of lordship.

At the very core of feudalism and lordship was the feudal oath. While oaths varied regionally and contained their own unique flavors, in general these oaths formed a contractual relationship between the lord and his vassal. As such, these oaths detailed the terms and conditions under which the vassal would serve and the payment (normally a fief) which the lord would convey upon him. While service was temporal, the oath acknowledged and deeply relied upon spiritual conviction(s) of the parties involved. In addition to these terms and conditions, each party agreed to be bound by the laws of God (tenets of Christianity). Each ascribing to the supremacy of God’s law in the fulfillment of their mutual obligations. Both politically and militarily, a lord was only as strong as the oaths that bound his vassals to him and the oath which he had made to his own king.[10] The following is a common Anglo-Saxon oath, which serves to illustrate the key components of feudal fidelity (italics added):

By the Lord before whom this sanctuary is holy, I will to (Name) be true and faithful, and love all which he loves and shun all which he shuns, according to the laws of God and the order of the world. Nor will I ever with will or action, through word or deed, do anything which is unpleasing to him, on condition that he will hold to me as I shall deserve it, and that he will perform everything as it was in our agreement when I submitted myself to him and chose his will.

The feudal societies of the 7th through 12th centuries CE would evolve into more and more complex organizations of nobles and royals. As the complexity of heretical titles and the powers ascribed to them increased, the abuses and excesses committed were frequently condemned by the populace and the Church.[14] These condemnations were often seen as the willful disobedience to God’s ordained oath of mutual service. By the late 13th century CE, many of the royal dynasties of Europe were often seen to have violated the religious foundations upon which the earlier practices of feudalism had evolved. It was in response to the most egregious violations of feudal oaths which inspired such reforms as Magna Carta (1215 CE) and the formal adoption of parliamentary systems in several European kingdoms.

In Medieval Europe, most lands were owned by the king, while some belonged to the church. The king would give large portions of his land to high-ranking society members known as ‘nobles’ or lords. These lords were often military leaders and held absolute power over the ‘fief’ (land). They would perform the administrative and judicial functions of the fief while defending the land and the people who lived there. In a sense, they had more direct power over the people than the king. In exchange for the fief, lords would swear an oath of allegiance to the king, which included a mutual set of legal and military agreements, such as providing the king with Knights for his cavalry.

Lords would further divide the land and give possession to lesser lords, such as Knights or local lords and peasants. Anyone who received land from an ‘overlord’ (the person who gave them the land) could be referred to as a vassal. For example, the nobility were vassals of the king, whilst knights were vassals of the lord. In exchange for the fief distributed to them, knights would offer their military services. Peasants were allowed to live on the land under the protection of the lord and his knights and cultivate the fief for food. In exchange, they would offer a range of services to the lord and knights, from providing labour or payment in the form of money or produce. A lower class of peasants were also known as ‘serfs’; they would commonly belong to the lord and be tied to his land for generations doing challenging labour until they died or were transferred or sold to another lord.

Within the system of feudalism, the fief was given to vassals by overlords in exchange for some form of payment. These were called feudal land tenures, where the vassals were tenants on their overlord’s land. There were two types of tenures, free and unfree. Free and unfree land tenures would determine how the vassal was to pay for their tenancy on the land. Free tenures were generally reserved for the higher classes. They were free because the vassal would pay the overlord in the form of a predetermined service.

There were various forms of free tenures, for example:

1. Religious Tenures: Members of the clergy, such as bishops and priests, would be given land in return for religious duties. They may have been required to pray for the overlord, his prosperity, and his bloodline and act as religious leaders for feudal societies.
2. Militant Tenures: These tenures were given to those of courage, often Knights who would fight in their overlord’s cavalry (and the overlord of their overlord, i.e., the king). Another form of military tenure was in serjeanty, which required the vassal to carry out specific tasks for their overlords, such as debt collection, craftsmanship, or other military duties, such as being a messenger.
3. Socage tenure: The terms for a socage tenure either included financial payment to the overlord or payment in the form of an agricultural service performed for a predetermined amount of time. For example, a vassal could be required to cultivate and care for the land for at least 90 days a year.

Unfree tenures had no predetermined terms and conditions. Essentially, those with unfree tenures had no specified job description and could be required to do anything by their overlords. These tenures were for the lower class peasants. Villeins (or ‘serfs’) were peasants who lived within the manorial system under unfree tenures. They could not leave their overlords land without his permission, but could also be ejected from his land at a moments notice, without reason. They differed from slaves as slaves were not tied to the land and could be bought and sold unrelatedly. Eventually, when the royal courts became more involved with the relations between overlords and vassals in England, they ruled that villeins could not be ejected without a cause.

Manorialism and feudalism are closely related; however, they do not mean the same thing. The manorial system was essentially a system that organised the economic system within the fief of the nobles concerning their vassals. This is a way to distinguish between manorialism and feudalism; feudalism describes the socio-political system of the kingdom during the medieval period, principally the relationship between the king and the nobles.

12th-century England had a well-organized, secure, and detailed feudal system. The highest form of feudal land tenure was of feudal barony, under which Barons would receive fief directly from the king, with predetermined legal and military obligations cited. The baron would then lease the manors on his fief to lords who would have authority within their manorial communities while often living in a manor castle himself. The baron would be responsible for all of his tenants, from the lords to the knights to the peasants, whilst the lords would be responsible for theirs and so on. The baron would also, for example, have to organise the number of knights each lord within his jurisdiction would have to provide for him to meet his tenure obligations to the king and enforce that however he saw fit.

During the 16th century, France colonised parts of North America, now Canada. As per feudal tradition, all the colonised land legally belonged to the French king. However, French kings were generally not too personally involved and allowed their nobleman to govern their overseas colonies. In 1628 French statesman Cardinal Richelieu introduced the feudal system to the French colonies, by offering a French trading and colonisation company named Company of One Hundred Associates vast amounts of land to conduct their business in exchange for the company bringing thousands of settlers to the area in the next 15 years. The company did this by further distributing the land to settlers, who were also under tenures to the company, with labour, socage, and religious duties used as payment.

Divine right of kings Political Doctrine

Divine right of kings, in European history, a political doctrine in defense of monarchical absolutism, which asserted that kings derived their authority from God and could not therefore be held accountable for their actions by any earthly authority such as a parliament.

Originating in Europe, the divine-right theory can be traced to the medieval conception of God’s award of temporal power to the political ruler, paralleling the award of spiritual power to the church.

By the 16th and 17th centuries, however, the new national monarchs were asserting their authority in matters of both church and state. King James I of England (reigned 1603–25) was the foremost exponent of the divine right of kings, but the doctrine virtually disappeared from English politics after the Glorious Revolution (1688–89).

In the late 17th and 18th centuries, kings such as Louis XIV (1643–1715) of France continued to profit from the divine-right theory, even though many of them no longer had any truly religious belief in it.

The American Revolution (1775–83), the French Revolution (1789), and the Napoleonic Wars deprived the doctrine of most of its remaining credibility.

The bishop Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet (1627–1704), one of the principal French theorists of divine right, asserted that the king’s person and authority were sacred; that his power was modeled on that of a father’s and was absolute, deriving from God; and that he was governed by reason (i.e., custom and precedent). In the middle of the 17th century, the English Royalist squire Sir Robert Filmer likewise held that the state was a family and that the king was a father, but he claimed, in an interpretation of Scripture, that Adam was the first king and that Charles I (reigned 1625–49) ruled England as Adam’s eldest heir.

Jacques-Bénigne Lignel Bossuet (French: [bɔsɥɛ]; 27 September 1627 – 12 April 1704) was a French bishop and theologian renowned for his sermons and other addresses. He has been considered by many to be one of the most brilliant orators of all time and a master French stylist.

Court preacher to Louis XIV of France, Bossuet was a strong advocate of political absolutism and the divine right of kings. He argued that government was divinely ordained and that kings received sovereign power from God. He was also an important courtier and politician.

The works best known to English speakers are three great orations delivered at the funerals of Queen Henrietta Maria, widow of Charles I of England (1669), of her daughter Henriette, Duchess of Orléans (1670), and of the outstanding military commander le Grand Condé (1687).

His work Discours sur l’histoire universelle (Discourse on Universal History 1681) has been regarded by many Catholics as an actualization or new version of the City of God of St. Augustine of Hippo.

The anti-absolutist philosopher John Locke (1632–1704) wrote his First Treatise of Civil Government (1689) in order to refute such arguments.

The doctrine of divine right can be dangerous for both church and state. For the state it suggests that secular authority is conferred, and can therefore be removed, by the church, and for the church it implies that kings have a direct relationship to God and may therefore dictate to ecclesiastical rulers.

Joluo ethnic group of Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania/ Islamization of Sudan /Muhammed/ Prominent Lou Personalities

The Luo, encompass several ethnically and linguistically related Nilo-Semitic ethnic groups. They inhabit a wide geographical area, stretching from Egypt and Sudan to South Sudan and Ethiopia, and then further into Northern Uganda, Eastern Congo (DRC), Western Kenya, and the Mara Region of Tanzania. The Luo languages spoken by these groups belong to the western branch of the Nilotic language family.

According to Atikson’s research in 1994, the migration of Luo ethnic groups to Central Uganda is estimated to have taken place between the years 1500 and 1800. It is also suggested that some of these groups later ventured into Kenya, Tanzania, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Throughout their migration, the Luo intermingled and exchanged cultural influences with other ethnic groups they encountered on their journey.

In South Sudan, notable Luo groups include the Shilluk, Anuak, Pari, Acholi, Balanda Boor, Thuri, and Luwo. In Uganda, the Alur, Acholi, Jonam, and Padhola are among the Luo tribes. Kenya and Tanzania are home to the Joluo community, also referred to as “Luo proper” in Kenya. However, it is important to note that the Joluo dialect incorporates more Bantu loan words compared to other Luo groups. The historical separation between these groups is believed to span around eight centuries. It is presumed that their dispersion from a purported Nilotic core region in South Sudan was triggered by the tumultuous events of the Muslim conquest of Sudan. Throughout the past few centuries, the migration of individual Luo groups can, to some extent, be traced through their respective oral histories.

The process of the Islamization of the Sudan region (Sahel) between the 8th and 16th centuries was a result of religious conversion, facilitated by military conquests and trade relations. These transformations occurred gradually over an extended period of time.

After the Muslim conquests of Egypt in the 7th century and North Africa in the 8th century, Arab Muslims began to expand their trade expeditions into Sub-Saharan Africa. Their primary motivations were economic, particularly in regards to trans-Saharan trade, including the trade of slaves.

The spread of Islamic influence followed a progressive course. The initial encounters took place in Nubia, where the Christian kingdoms held resilient against Arab incursions until the 14th century, when the Kingdom of Makuria and Old Dongola succumbed to the pressures. Sufi orders played a significant role in disseminating Islam between the 9th and 14th centuries, utilizing trade routes connecting North Africa and the sub-Saharan Mali Empire. The establishment of zawiyas along the banks of the River Niger served as a platform for their missionary endeavors.

The Mali Empire witnessed a period of internal-driven conversion following the renowned pilgrimage of Musa I of Mali in 1324. This led to the prominence of Timbuktu as a vital center of Islamic culture within the Sahara region. The final stronghold of Christian Nubia, Alodia, met its demise at the hands of the Funj in 1504. During the 19th century, the Sanusi order actively engaged in missionary work, with their missions extending southward to Lake Chad, promoting Islam and advocating for literacy.

Consequently, the contemporary Sudan region predominantly adheres to Islam. This encompasses the Republic of Sudan (following the secession of largely Christian South Sudan), the northern parts of Chad and Niger, most of Mali, Mauritania, and Senegal. It is important to note that these countries also face significant challenges related to slavery, a practice deeply intertwined with the historical dynamics between the Arabized populations in the north and the dark-skinned Africans in the south. These longstanding divisions have often fueled conflicts, such as the War in Darfur, the Northern Mali conflict, and the Islamist insurgency in Northern Nigeria.

The expansion of the Islamic faith spans a timeline of approximately 1,400 years. The dynamic phenomenon of Muslim conquests that followed the passing of the Prophet Muhammad resulted in the establishment of influential caliphates. These caliphates, fueled by Arab Muslim forces and their conquests of vast territories, propelled the dissemination of Islam across a wide geographical expanse. Notably, the consolidation of the Rashidun caliphate from 632 to 661 CE, during the reign of the first four successors of Muhammad, marked a significant period of growth.

The early caliphates, bolstered by thriving Muslim economics and trade, gave rise to the Islamic Golden Age and the era of the Islamic gunpowder empires. Consequently, the influence of Islam expanded outward from its birthplace in Mecca, stretching across the Indian, Atlantic, and Pacific Oceans to establish what is now known as the Muslim world. The diverse factors of Islamic conquests, the economic prosperity it ushered in, and the profound emphasis on Islamic teachings facilitated the emergence and endurance of this global cultural and religious institution.

Trade played a pivotal role in the dissemination of Islam, particularly in regions such as Indonesia, where it left an indelible impact. As Muslim dynasties took root, they paved the way for powerful empires like the Umayyads, Abbasids, Mamluks, Seljukids, and the Ayyubids, which dominated vast territories and left an enduring mark on world history. Notable civilizations such as the Ajuran and Adal Sultanates, Mali Empire, Delhi Sultanate, Deccan Sultanates, Bengal Sultanate, Mughal Empire, Durrani Empire, Kingdom of Mysore, Nizam of Hyderabad, Ghaznavids, Ghurids, Samanids, Timurids, and the Ottoman Empire, made significant contributions to the Islamic world’s cultural and intellectual heritage.

The Islamic world flourished as centers of knowledge, art, and scientific achievements emerged. Scientists, scholars, mathematicians, physicians, philosophers, and intrepid explorers traversed the vast Islamic realms, fostering the Islamic Golden Age. The Timurid Renaissance and the Islamic expansion into South and East Asia cultivated diverse and cosmopolitan Muslim societies in regions such as the Indian subcontinent, Malaysia, Indonesia, and China.

In contemporary times, Islam comprises a significant global population, with approximately 1.7 billion adherents as of 2016. This accounts for one out of every four individuals worldwide, positioning Islam as the second-largest religion globally. Moreover, Islamic teachings continue to be embraced by a substantial number of individuals, with 31% of children born between 2010 and 2015 being born into Muslim families. Consequently, Islam holds the distinction of being the world’s fastest-growing major religion in terms of births, with Pentecostalism leading in terms of conversions.

Muhammad (Arabic: مُحَمَّد; c. 570 – 8 June 632 CE) was a prominent Arab religious, social, and political leader who is revered as the founder of the Islamic faith. His pivotal role in the Islamic doctrine is attributed to his divine inspiration to propagate and affirm the monotheistic teachings espoused by

1. Adam,
2. Abraham,
3. Moses,
4. Jesus, and
5. Other esteemed prophets.

Within the Islamic tradition, Muhammad is widely acknowledged as the Seal of the Prophets, signifying the culmination and finality of divine revelation.

Born in Mecca around the year 570 CE, Muhammad was the son of Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib and Amina bint Wahb. Tragically, he experienced early bereavement as his father passed away shortly before his birth and his mother, Amina, died when he was just six years old, leaving him orphaned. Subsequently, Muhammad was primarily nurtured under the guardianship of his grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib, and his paternal uncle, Abu Talib. During his formative years, he would periodically seek solitude in a cavern named Hira, where he would devote several nights to prayer and reflection.

It was around the age of 40, approximately in the year 610 CE, that Muhammad reported a transformative encounter in the Hira cave. According to his account, the angel Gabriel appeared to him, bestowing upon him the first divine revelation. Thus commenced the series of revelations from God, which Muhammad began to publicly preach in 613 CE. His message emphasized

1. The oneness of God,
2. The significance of complete submission to His will, known as “islām,” and
3. His role as a prophet and messenger of God alongside the other revered figures in Islamic tradition.

Initially facing staunch opposition and persecution from the polytheistic inhabitants of Mecca, Muhammad’s followers were few in number and endured hardships for a period of 13 years. In a bid to escape ongoing persecution, he sanctioned the migration of some of his followers to Abyssinia in 615 CE. Eventually, Muhammad and his followers themselves migrated from Mecca to Medina, then known as Yathrib, in 622 CE. This momentous event, known as the Hijra, marks the commencement of the Islamic calendar, also referred to as the Hijri Calendar. In Medina, Muhammad undertook the task of unifying diverse tribes through the Constitution of Medina.

After eight years of intermittent conflict with Meccan tribes, Muhammad orchestrated a decisive military campaign in December 629 CE. Leading an army comprising 10,000 Muslim converts, he triumphantly marched upon the city of Mecca, which ultimately surrendered with minimal bloodshed. Following his return from the Farewell Pilgrimage in 632 CE, Muhammad fell ill and passed away. By the time of his demise, the majority of the Arabian Peninsula had embraced the Islamic faith.

The profound revelations that Muhammad received throughout his life, collectively known as Ayahs (literally meaning “Signs of God”), constitute the verses of the Quran, considered by Muslims as the unadulterated “Word of God” and the foundation of their religious beliefs. Alongside the Quran, Muhammad’s teachings, actions, and practices, commonly referred to as his sunnah, have been meticulously documented in the Hadith and sira literature, serving as authoritative sources for Islamic jurisprudence and guidance.

LUO LEADERS

1. Oginga Odinga

Oginga was born in the village of Nyamira Kang’o, Bondo, to Mama Opondo Nyamagolo and Odinga Raila in October 1911. Originally named Obadiah Adonijah, he later abandoned his Christian names and adopted the name Oginga Odinga. He received education at

1. Maseno School and
2. Alliance High School before attending
3. Makerere University in 1940.

Upon his return, he served as a teacher at Maseno High School. In 1948, he joined the political party known as the Kenya African Union (KAU). Motivated by the desire to uplift and empower the Luo ethnic group of Kenya, Odinga established the Luo Thrift and Trading Corporation in 1947. Over time, his focus expanded to fostering unity among the Luo people throughout East Africa. Odinga’s dedication and accomplishments garnered him great admiration and respect within the Luo community. They bestowed upon him the title of “Ker,” previously held only by the legendary Luo king, Ramogi Ajwang, who reigned four centuries earlier. Emulating the principles of Ramogi Ajwang, Odinga came to be known as Jaramogi, a revered figure representing the collective interests of the people of Ramogi.

According to Luo tradition, it is considered inappropriate for a Ker to engage in politics. Consequently, Odinga made the decision to relinquish his position as king in 1957 and assumed the role of the Luo community’s political spokesperson. During the same year, he successfully ran in the Central Nyanza constituency, securing a seat in the Legislative Council. In addition, Odinga became a member of the Kenya African Union (KAU) in 1958. A significant milestone occurred in 1959 when he co-founded the Kenya Independence Movement. Subsequently, in 1960, Odinga joined the Kenya African National Union (KANU) alongside Tom Mboya. Notably, he held the distinction of being the first Vice-President of Kenya after the country transitioned into a republic in 1964. However, conflicts arose between Odinga and Jomo Kenyatta’s government while serving as Vice-President. Odinga advocated for stronger ties with the People’s Republic of China, the Soviet Union, and other countries within the Warsaw Pact. Conversely, Kenyatta favored establishing closer relations with the United States and the Western bloc. Consequently, Odinga found it necessary to resign from his position and depart from KANU in 1966. As a result, he founded the Kenya People’s Union (KPU).

Odinga was a man of polygamous nature, having entered into marital bonds with four wives, namely

1. Mary Juma,
2. Gaudencia Adeya,
3. Susan Agik, and
4. Betty Adongo.

Through these marital unions, he was blessed with a total of seventeen children. It is worth noting that Raila and Oburu, prominent figures in their own right, were born to Mary. Unfortunately, Mary passed away in the year 1984.

2. Ramogi Ochieng Aneko

Ramogi Achieng Oneko (1920–2007) was a prominent figure in Kenya’s struggle for independence and a revered statesman. He is widely regarded as a national hero within the country. Born in Tieng’a village, Uyoma sub-location, Bondo District in 1920, Oneko received his education at Maseno School. Oneko’s unwavering commitment to the cause led to his arrest by the British colonial government in 1952, as part of the historic “Kapenguria Six” group. Alongside Jomo Kenyatta, Paul Ngei, Bildad Kaggia, Kungu Karumba, and Fred Kubai, he was accused of having connections to the Mau Mau rebellion movement. Known as “Accused No.3,” Oneko faced a trial where key evidence was derived from a KAU meeting conducted in Kikuyu, a language he did not understand at the time. Despite the pleas of innocence, the verdict was initially against him. However, in an appeal process, the judges recognized the lack of understanding and context surrounding Oneko’s involvement. Consequently, on 15th January 1954, he was acquitted of all charges. Nonetheless, along with the other members of the Kapenguria Five, he continued to be detained until their eventual release in 1961, two years before Kenya achieved independence.

3. Tom Mboya

Thomas Joseph Odhiambo Mboya (15 August 1930 – 5 July 1969) was a prominent

1. Kenyan trade unionist,
2. Educator,
3. Pan-Africanist,
4. Author,
5. Independence activist, and
6. Statesman.

Regarded as one of the founding fathers of the Republic of Kenya, Mboya played a pivotal role in the negotiations for independence at the Lancaster House Conferences. He also played a crucial part in the formation of Kenya’s independence party – the Kenya African National Union (KANU) – serving as its first Secretary-General. Notably, he laid the groundwork for Kenya’s capitalist and mixed economy policies during the height of the Cold War and spearheaded the establishment of several significant labor institutions in the country.

Mboya’s distinguished intellect, charisma, leadership, and eloquence garnered admiration from around the world.

1. He delivered compelling speeches, engaged in meaningful debates, and participated in interviews advocating for Kenya’s liberation from British colonial rule.
2. Additionally, he actively supported the Civil Rights movement in the United States, delivering speeches at numerous rallies.
3. A testament to his influence, at the young age of 28, Mboya was elected Conference Chairman at the All-African Peoples’ Conference convened by Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana. Moreover, he played a pivotal role in fostering the growth of the Trade Union Movement in Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania, as well as across the African continent.
4. He also served as the Africa Representative to the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) and played a pivotal role in organizing the first All-Africa ICFTU labor organization during a conference in Lagos, Nigeria, in 1959.

Mboya’s dedication to education and his commitment to providing African students with opportunities abroad led him to collaborate closely with renowned figures such as John F. Kennedy and Martin Luther King Jr. Together, they worked to create educational avenues for African students, resulting in initiatives such as the Kennedy Airlifts in the 1960s, which enabled East African students to pursue higher education in American colleges. An exemplary beneficiary of this program is the renowned environmentalist Wangari Maathai. Mboya’s significant contributions and influence were recognized on an international scale, as evidenced by the depiction of his portrait by Bernard Safran on the front cover of Time magazine in 1960, making him the first Kenyan to receive such recognition.

Mboya received his education at several Catholic mission schools.

1. In 1942, he enrolled at St. Mary’s School Yala, a Catholic secondary school in Yala within the Nyanza province. During his time there, Mboya focused on English and History as part of his academic curriculum.
2. Subsequently, in 1946, he attended the esteemed Holy Ghost College (later Mang’u High School), where he excelled academically, paving the way for him to pursue his Cambridge School Certificate.
3. The following year, in 1948, Mboya joined the Royal Sanitary Institute’s Medical Training School for Sanitary Inspectors in Nairobi, successfully qualifying as an inspector in 1950.
4. Additionally, he undertook a certificate course in economics at the Efficiency Correspondence College of South Africa.
5. In 1955, Mboya received a scholarship from the Trades Union Congress to study industrial management at Ruskin College, from which he graduated in 1956.

Upon his return to Kenya, Mr. Mboya immersed himself in political affairs during a period in which the British colonial authorities were actively suppressing the Mau Mau rebellion, led by the Kenya Land and Freedom Army. Mr. Mboya entered into matrimony with Mrs. Pamela Odede on Saturday, the 20th of January, 1962, at St. Peter Claver’s Catholic Church on Racecourse Road, in Nairobi. Mrs. Pamela, a distinguished alumna of the University of Makerere, was the daughter of esteemed politician Mr. Walter Odede. The couple was blessed with five children. Among their daughters are Maureen Odero, a respected high court judge in Mombasa, and Susan Mboya, a accomplished executive at Coca-Cola who continues the noble work of the education airlift program initiated by her late father. She is married to the former Nairobi governor, Mr. Evans Kidero. The couple also had sons, including Lucas Mboya, as well as twin brothers Peter (who tragically passed away in a motorcycle accident in 2004) and Patrick (who sadly lost his life at the tender age of four).

After the untimely demise of Mr. Mboya, Mrs. Pamela had the privilege of bringing another child into the world, Tom Mboya Jr., with Mr. Alphonse Okuku, the brother of the late Tom Mboya. Regrettably, Mrs. Pamela succumbed to an illness in January 2009 while seeking medical treatment in South Africa.

4. Robert Ouko

Mr. Ouko was born in Nyahera, which is located in the present-day Kisumu County, within the region of Nyanza. He attended Ogada Primary School and Nyang’ori School, and subsequently pursued his education at the esteemed Siriba Teachers Training College. With dedication and diligence, he acquired a position as a primary school teacher. In 1955, Mr. Ouko successfully secured the role of revenue officer for Kisii District. Demonstrating a commitment to academic excellence, he pursued higher education at Haile Selassie University in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, where he graduated in 1962 with a distinguished degree in Public Administration, Economics, and Political Science. Subsequently, he joined Makerere University in Uganda to obtain a diploma in International Relations and Diplomacy. At the time of his untimely demise, Mr. Ouko was nearing the completion of his doctoral thesis, which he was diligently working on at the University of Nairobi. Although widely referred to as ‘Dr. Ouko’, it is important to note that he held an honorary doctorate bestowed upon him by Pacific Lutheran University in Seattle in 1971, as his formal academic pursuits focused on attaining a diploma and degrees rather than a doctorate.

Prior to Kenya’s attainment of independence in 1963, he served as an Assistant Secretary in the office of the Governor. Subsequently, he assumed the role of permanent secretary in the Ministry of Works. Following the dissolution of the East African Community in 1977, Ouko was appointed as a nominated member in the Kenyan parliament and assumed the position of Minister for Economic Planning and Community Affairs.

In the 1979 general elections, he garnered a parliamentary seat for the Kisumu Rural Constituency, retaining it in the subsequent 1983 elections. In the 1988 elections, he relocated to the Kisumu Town Constituency (later divided into Kisumu Town West and Kisumu Town East constituencies), where he was successfully re-elected to the parliament. It is worth noting that Ouko was a member of the Kenya African National Union (KANU), the sole legally operating party at the time.

On the 27th of January 1990, Robert Ouko, who was serving as the Minister of Foreign Affairs at the time, embarked on a journey with a delegation of 83 ministers and officials, led by President Daniel arap Moi, to attend a ‘Prayer Breakfast’ meeting in Washington DC. The delegation returned to Nairobi on the 4th of February. On the 5th of February, Ouko held meetings with President Moi, the Japanese Ambassador, the Canadian High Commissioner, Bethuel Kiplagat (Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Foreign Affairs), and Hezekiah Oyugi (Permanent Secretary, Internal Security). Subsequently, Ouko traveled to his country residence, a farm located in Koru, near Kisumu, accompanied by his driver and a bodyguard.

During the night of the 12th/13th of February 1990, Ouko mysteriously disappeared from his Koru farm in Muhoroni. His housemaid, Selina Were Ndalo, testified that she was startled awake at around 3 am by a loud noise, similar to that of a slammed door. She claimed to have witnessed a white car turning at the bottom of the minister’s driveway before driving away.

Francis Cheruyot, a telephonist at Songoh Office near the Koru farm, alleged to Detective Superintendent John Troon of Scotland Yard that on the 13th of February 1990, around 6 am, he saw Hezekiah Oyugi, accompanied by three other individuals, driving past the post office in a white car. Cheruyot, however, refused to provide a written statement regarding this incident. Additionally, Oyugi was unable to produce the daily log of his official car.

The body of Ouko was discovered later on the 13th of February, around 1 pm, by a local herdsboy named Joseph Shikuku, at the foot of nearby Got Alila Hill, approximately 2.8 km from Ouko’s country home. Strangely, despite notifying the local villagers, the incident was not immediately reported to the police. The official discovery of Ouko’s body occurred on the 16th of February after a thorough police search.

Forensic evidence strongly suggested that Ouko had been murdered. His body was found near the place of discovery, with a single gunshot wound to the head and two fractures in his right leg. The body had also been partially burned. The scene indicated the discharge of a firearm, although the bullet was never recovered. Notably, a “single caucasian hair” was found in loose association with a partially burnt handkerchief discovered at the scene. Items such as a gun, a torch, a diesel can, and matches were found nearby, all of which were identified as belonging to Ouko. These items, with the exception of the jerrycan, matches, and torch, were typically kept in his bedroom. The news of Ouko’s murder sparked riots in Nairobi.

Initial reports from the police suggested the possibility of suicide, but it later became evident that Ouko had been both shot and burnt. The suicide theory appeared implausible and led to suspicions of a potential cover-up. Public pressure compelled President Daniel arap Moi to request the assistance of British detectives from New Scotland Yard to investigate Ouko’s death. Consequently, Detective Superintendent John Troon from Scotland Yard’s International Organised Crime Branch arrived in Kenya on the 21st of February, accompanied by two other detectives and a Home Office forensic pathologist, to support the ongoing investigation conducted by the Kenyan police.

Robert Ouko was wedded to Christabel Ouko. He was blessed with three sons, namely Ken, Charlie, and Andrew, as well as four daughters: Winnie, Susan, Lilian, and Carol. Robert Ouko also shared a paternal bond with a daughter (born May 1983) from a relationship with Miss Herine Violas Ogembo, which endured until his demise. In the year 2010, a fundraising event was organized to facilitate the construction of the Robert Ouko Memorial Community Library in Koru.

5. Miguna Miguna

Miguna hails from Magina, Kenya. He completed his primary education at Apondos Primary School in Magina Village-Nyando before advancing to the esteemed Njiiri School in Murang’a for his secondary education. Subsequently, he pursued higher studies at the University of Nairobi, where he emerged as a prominent student leader in 1986 and 1987.

Due to his resolute advocacy for multi-party democracy in Kenya, Miguna faced repression under the Moi regime, resulting in his detention and subsequent expulsion from the university in 1987. Following his release, he embarked on a perilous journey on foot to seek refuge in neighboring Tanzania, eventually receiving asylum from the UNHCR. After a short stay in Tanzania, he received permanent political asylum in the Kingdom of Swaziland. In 1988, Miguna was granted asylum in Canada, where he continued his educational pursuits.

In Canada, Miguna earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in political science and philosophy from the University of Toronto in 1990. Subsequently, he pursued a law degree at Osgoode Hall Law School of York University in Toronto, graduating with a Juris Doctor degree in 1993. He was called to the Ontario Bar in 1995 and later achieved a Masters of Laws (LLM) from the Osgoode Hall Law School of York University in 2001.

From 1988 to 1994, Miguna assumed the role of Coordinator for the Committee for Democracy in Kenya (CDK). Following his articling experience at the civil rights law firm of Charles Roach (Roach, Schwartz, and Associates) in Toronto, he established his own law practice. In 2007, Miguna returned to Kenya and was admitted to the Kenyan Bar in 2008.

6. PLO Lumumba

Patrick Loch Otieno Lumumba, born on 17 July 1962, is a Kenyan legal expert who held the position of Director at the Kenya Anti-Corruption Commission from September 2010 to August 2011. Currently, Lumumba serves as the Director of The Kenya School of Law since 2014. He is well-versed in the field of law, with a Bachelor of Laws (LL.B) and Master of Laws (LL.M) degree from the esteemed University of Nairobi. Lumumba’s LL.M thesis, titled “National Security And Fundamental Rights,” showcases his dedication to academic excellence. Furthermore, Lumumba boasts a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) degree in Laws of the Sea from the University of Ghent in Belgium.

Lumumba is widely regarded as a prominent advocate of Pan-Africanism and is known for his impassioned speeches advocating African solutions to African issues. He holds great admiration for influential African leaders such as Kwame Nkrumah, the first president of Ghana, Patrice Lumumba, and Thomas Sankara, renowned revolutionary leaders of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Burkina Faso, respectively. Lumumba often cites and references these visionaries in his speeches, drawing inspiration from their ideologies.

One of Lumumba’s most notable addresses took place in Uganda during the third Anti-Corruption Convention, where his passionate and energetic speech left a significant impact. Lumumba’s expertise and insights on good governance and the future of Africa led to an invitation by the PAV Ansah Foundation to speak at the 2015 PAVA Forum on “Good Governance and Africa’s Progress: Whither Africa?” This event further solidified his reputation as an esteemed authority in his field.

6. Babu Owino

Paul Ongili Owino, commonly known as Babu Owino, is an esteemed Kenyan politician who currently serves as the Member of Parliament for Embakasi East Constituency. Owino gained significant media recognition as the esteemed chairperson of the Students Organisation of Nairobi University (SONU). Born on October 10, 1989, Owino began his academic journey at Kisumu Township Primary School, where he pursued his education from 1995 to 2002. He furthered his studies at Kisumu Boys’ Secondary School from 2003 to 2006, demonstrating his commitment to academic excellence. In 2008, Babu Owino commenced his higher education at Nairobi University, specializing in Actuarial Science. Demonstrating exceptional dedication and prowess, he earned a First-Class Honors degree in 2012, marking a significant achievement. In his pursuit of knowledge and personal growth, Owino returned to Nairobi University in 2013 to pursue a degree in Law, highlighting his commitment to expanding his intellectual horizons. With a passion for public service and advocating for the rights of others, Babu Owino was elected as the chairperson of the Student Organisation of Nairobi University (SONU) in 2011. His leadership skills and dedication to uplift the student community garnered widespread admiration and support. In recognition of his unwavering commitment to public service and his ability to connect with the constituents, Babu Owino was elected as the Member of Parliament for Embakasi East Constituency on August 31, 2017. His affiliation with the ODM Party further exemplifies his dedication to making impactful change within the political landscape.

Beyond his political endeavors, Babu Owino is a devoted husband to Frida Muthoni, and together they are blessed with two daughters. Furthermore, Owino has another child from a previous relationship. In total, he is a proud father to three biological children. Babu Owino’s remarkable journey, from his academic achievements to his political aspirations, showcases his resilience, leadership, and commitment to serving the community. He continues to be an inspiring figure, dedicated to shaping a brighter future for Kenya.

Africa Inland Church/ Peter Cameron Scott /

Africa Inland Mission (AIM) had its beginning in the work of Peter Cameron Scott (1867-1896), a Scottish-American missionary of the International Missionary Alliance who served two years in the Congo before he was sent to Scotland in 1892 because of a near-fatal illness. While recuperating, he developed his idea of establishing a network of mission stations which would stretch from the southeast coast of the continent to the interior’s Lake Chad. He was able to interest several of his friends in Philadelphia in the work and in subscribing some funds. This group formed itself into the Philadelphia Missionary Council.

On August 17, 1895, AIM’s first mission party set off. The group consisted of Scott, his sister Margaret, Frederick W. Krieger, Willis Hotchkiss, Minnie Lindberg, Miss Reckling, and Lester Severn. They arrived off the east African coast in October, and Peter Scott started making arrangements in the Kenyan seaport of Mombasa. In little over a year, the mission had four stations–at Nzaui, Sakai, Kilungu, and Kangundo, all in Kenya. More workers came from America, including Scott’s parents, and the small group expanded to fifteen.

In December 1896, Peter Scott died, partly because of the extremely hard pace at which he had been driving himself. The mission almost dissolved in the next year when most of the workers either died or resigned. The Council began to take more responsibility for the work and appointed Rev. Charles Hurlburt director of the mission. After a survey trip to Africa, he returned to that continent to work, and he eventually brought his entire family over. For the next two decades, he provided strong leadership for the headquarters, established in 1903 at Kijabe, Kenya.

From Kenya, the mission expanded its work to neighboring areas. In 1909, a station was set up in what was then German East Africa and later became Tanganyika, and still later, Tanzania. In 1912, Theodore Roosevelt intervened for his friend Hurlburt to persuade the Belgian government to permit the mission to establish a station in the Congo (now the Democratic Republic of Congo). Work was begun in Uganda in 1918; in French Equatorial Africa (Central African Republic) in 1924; Sudan, briefly, in 1949; and the Islands of the Indian Ocean in 1975. Besides evangelism, workers of the mission ran clinics, hospitals, leprosariums, schools, publishing operations, and radio programs. Rift Valley Academy was built at Kijabe for missionary children. Scott Theological College in Kenya helped train African Church leaders. The churches founded by the mission in each of its fields were eventually formed into branches of what is today the Africa Inland Church.

Church of Scotland/ Thogoto/ Alliance High School / David Livingstone/ Thomas & Minnie Watson

The Church of Scotland holds a special place in Scottish history and traditions. Its roots date back to the 16th-century Reformation, when it embraced the Presbyterian faith. According to legends, the first Christian church in Scotland was established around 400 AD by St. Ninian. Later, in the 6th century, Irish missionaries like St. Columba arrived, settling at Iona in 563. It’s worth noting that in 1192, the Scottish church was recognized as a “special daughter” of the Roman see, with allegiance to the pope. Notably, St. Andrews became an archiepiscopal see in 1472, followed by Glasgow in 1492. The Church’s rich history and associations with these significant figures make it a cherished institution for many.

During the Scottish Reformation, the early reformers were initially influenced by Lutheranism but later embraced the ideas of the Swiss reformers. The strong Calvinistic values that shaped the Scottish Reformation were largely attributed to the influential figure of John Knox, who emerged as its leader. Knox greatly admired John Calvin and the Reformation movement that Calvin led in Geneva. This admiration is evident in Knox’s writings such as the Scots Confession, the Book of Common Order (often referred to as Knox’s liturgy), and the Book of Discipline, which outlined a vision for a righteous church and society. In August 1560, the Scottish reformers convened a parliament where they abolished the authority of the Pope in Scotland, adopted the Scots Confession, and prohibited the celebration of mass.

The Church of England retained more vestiges of Catholicism, has Catholic and evangelical wings, and is governed by bishops. Meanwhile, the Church of Scotland is Presbyterian in structure and has no bishops. The Church of Scotland is a mainstream Protestant Christian church, but like all churches it has developed its own authentic and individual character.

The most famous Scottish missionary, David Livingstone, was funded by the London Missionary Society. After his “disappearance” and death in the 1870s he became an icon of evangelic outreach, self-improvement, exploration and a form of colonialism. David Livingstone was a Scottish missionary, doctor, abolitionist, and explorer who lived in the 1800s. He sought to bring Christianity, commerce, and “civilization” to Africa and undertook three extensive expeditions throughout much of the continent.

THOGOTO

The missionaries from the Church of Scotland Mission (CSM) who arrived in the Central Kenyan highlands as from 1898 had a deep commitment to not only introducing people to Jesus Christ but also to uplifting them holistically. They genuinely sought to empower the Kikuyu men and help them reach their full potential. Their evangelical approach challenged existing ideas of masculinity in the region. However, they faced numerous challenges in their mission to instill Christian values in communities deeply rooted in their age-old martial traditions. The intervention of the CSM was built upon a centuries-old tradition where young men strived to demonstrate their maturity and place in society.

Thogoto, the veritable cradle of education, stands as a resplendent beacon, drawing in seekers of knowledge from every corner of Kenya and beyond. A sacred haven where wisdom takes flight and prosperity unfolds in abundance. The very essence of Thogoto, affectionately christened by the locals with the endearing moniker “Scotland,” captures the spirit of inquisitiveness and zest for learning that permeates this revered place. Here, amidst these consecrated grounds, the flames of enlightenment were lovingly nurtured, forever shaping the destinies of myriad generations to come. Prepare to be enthralled by the boundless passion that radiates from this extraordinary stronghold of education and opportunity.

Thogoto is not just any educational center, it is a true hub of knowledge and excellence. With not one, but two esteemed universities, along with a prestigious teacher-training college, five outstanding secondary schools, and five highly regarded primary schools, this place is a true breeding ground for intellectual growth. And let’s not forget about the jewels in Thogoto’s crown – Alliance High School and Alliance Girls’ High School, renowned for their exceptional standards of education. Moreover, Thogoto is proudly home to the acclaimed Kikuyu Mission Hospital, recognized as one of the finest eye hospitals in all of Kenya. Its origins can be traced back to the Church of Scotland, which dates back to 1897 and has since transformed into the Presbyterian Church of East Africa (PCEA). With such a rich history, a thriving educational landscape, and a refreshing climate reminiscent of Scotland, Thogoto truly stands tall as an epitome of inspiration and accomplishment.

The first missionary in Thogoto, Thomas Watson, had originally settled at Kibwezi, but an outbreak of the vicious highland Malaria decimated their team, inspiring Watson’s move into the hinterlands.

In 1891, a group of brave missionaries from the East Africa Scottish Mission (EASM) embarked on a journey to Kenya, filled with hopes and dreams of making a positive impact in a land unknown to them. Little did they know of the challenges that awaited them.

Tragically, only one of the six missionaries, Thomas Watson, survived the harsh climatic conditions that claimed the lives of his fellow companions. Battling against smallpox and the unforgiving environment, Watson persevered with unwavering determination.

He relocated from Kibwezi to Fort Smith in Dagoretti, where he found solace in the companionship of John Patterson. Together, they ventured to Thogoto and purchased 30 acres of lush land, laying the foundation for what would become their new home and mission.

The year 1899 marked a significant milestone as the railway line expanded to reach Kikuyu. An auspicious occasion prompted Thomas Watson to embark on a momentous journey. He boarded the train to Mombasa to reunite with and marry the love of his life, Minnie Cumming. Their union was celebrated at the Church Missionary Society (CMS) station, in Freetown near Mombasa.

As a young couple, they confronted countless hardships and trials. From 1894 to 1896, a devastating locust invasion weighed heavily on the land, followed by a crippling drought in 1897. Rinderpest further ravaged the already vulnerable cattle population, exacerbating the local communities’ struggles. Famine gripped the region, claiming the lives of many unfortunate souls.

In 1900, Thomas Watson and Minnie decided to establish a camp, where they could provide aid and support to those afflicted by smallpox and severe starvation. They tirelessly worked to bring solace to these individuals, their hearts filled with compassion and a desire to alleviate suffering. Additionally, they initiated a day school for the children from the camp, as well as an evening school for young men who labored at the mission.

Amidst the challenges they faced, a beacon of hope emerged when the villagers gathered around a comforting fire at the heart of the village. There, they joined together in hymns and listened attentively to the retelling of the ancient, sacred stories. This sense of community, resilience, and unity became a guiding light for all in

On December 4, 1900, an unfortunate event occurred that would forever change the life of Minnie Watson. Tragically, her beloved partner, Thomas Watson, was taken away by the merciless grip of pneumonia, just two weeks before their anniversary. The weight of sorrow settled upon Minnie’s heart, casting a somber shadow over the days to come. However, in the face of adversity, Minnie Watson found the strength to carry on.

In 1901, the East Africa Scottish Mission (EASM) entrusted the mission’s leadership to the Church of Scotland. Dr. D. Clement Ruffelle, a compassionate Scott from Blantyre Mission in Nyasaland, joined forces with Minnie Watson to continue the noble cause. Together, they formed an indomitable team, driven by their unwavering dedication to the mission.

Their collaborative efforts bore fruit as they established the first boys’ boarding school, initially welcoming a humble group of seven young learners. The school’s reputation grew steadily, and by 1920, its population had swelled to an impressive 3,000 students. Overcoming societal resistance built on outdated notions, the dream team championed the education of girls, leading to the establishment of a girls’ boarding section.

Though Minnie Watson’s journey was marked by tragedy, her resilient spirit and unwavering commitment to the mission became a guiding light for generations to come.

March 1, 1926 marks a remarkable milestone in the birth of the Alliance High School. This esteemed institution was established by the Alliance of the Protestant Churches, which comprised the Methodist Church of Kenya (MCK), Africa Inland Church (AIC), Anglican Church of Kenya (formerly known as the Church of the Province of Kenya – CPK), and the Church of Scotland Mission (now known as the Presbyterian Church of East Africa – PCEA). It’s truly inspiring to witness the rich tapestry of knowledge that emerged from the collaboration of these four churches.

Alliance High School has a rich history of producing remarkable individuals, such as Ngugi wa Thiong’o, Charles Njonjo, Anyang’ Nyong’o, and many others. These accomplished men were in search of partners who matched their caliber. In response to this need, a prestigious girls’ school was established in 1948: African Girls’ High School, now known as Alliance Girls’ High School. Over the years, it has nurtured and empowered exceptional women like Margaret Ogola, Micere Githae Mugo, Sally Kosgei, Charity Ngilu, and countless others.

In the early days of the PCEA Church of the Torch, Minnie Watson played a pivotal role by laying the cornerstone in 1929. However, she had to return to her homeland in 1931. Sadly, Minnie Watson passed away in 1949 after her unwavering commitment to her faith. Nevertheless, the PCEA church has continued to grow and flourish, giving birth to numerous parishes across East Africa, particularly in the breathtaking setting of the Mount Kenya Region. This church has also played a vital role in promoting education by founding and supporting a multitude of schools, colleges, and even the esteemed Presbyterian University of East Africa (PUEA).

Catholic Church in Kenya / Vasco da Gama/ Fort Jesus

The presence of the Catholic Church in Kenya holds a significant place in the religious landscape of the country. It is an integral part of the global network of the Catholic Church and operates under the spiritual guidance of the esteemed Kenyan Conference of Catholic Bishops and the prestigious institution of the Vatican City.

Tracing back to the advent of missionaries in 1498, led by the renowned figure of Vasco da Gama, the Catholic Church gradually took root in Kenya. However, it faced numerous challenges such as regional conflicts, limited transportation, and the nomadic nature of the populace. Despite these hurdles, the Church managed to establish a more substantial presence in northern Kenya during the twentieth century.

With a membership base of approximately 7.5 million baptized Catholics, accounting for approximately 33% of the country’s population, the Catholic Church in Kenya stands as a formidable institution within the broader Christian community and plays a vital role in religious life.

Vasco da Gama: A Voyage of Courage and Discovery

It was a momentous Saturday afternoon, the 7th of April, 1498. The mighty Vasco da Gama, a fearless Portuguese explorer, cast anchor off the vibrant shores of Mombasa. His mission? Nothing short of extraordinary – to forge new trade routes and defy the vehement Muslim resistance, all while spreading the transformative power of Christianity. It was a daring quest, fueled by unwavering determination and an unbridled thirst for adventure. And so, with the wind in his sails and his eyes set on the horizon, Vasco da Gama embarked on a profound journey that would forever etch his name in the annals of history.

First Catholic Church in Kenya

On October 18, 1892, Chief Mbogholi officially announced the handing over of the more than 250 acres of land in Bura to the missionaries as a gift. They put up a community house and a chapel. On September 30, 1896, construction of the first Catholic Church in Kenya was complete.

ln 1599, Francisco da Gama reported that the church in Mombasa was nearly completed and that
evangelization was in progress. The Augustinians who were responsible for missionary outreach
reported that 600 people had been converted. Among the new converts was the exiled ruler of
Pemba, who was living in Mombasa, and who had been baptized as Philip.

By 1624 there seems to have been four established places of worship in Mombasa. There was the
Augustinian cathedral, the Misericordia church, the church inside the walled town referred to as
the igreja matriz (mother church) and a chapel inside Fort Jesus.

Fort Jesus, an exquisite monument completed in 1595, stands as a testament to the skilled craftsmanship of its chief architect, Giobanni Battista Cairati, an Italian engineer. Historically, this formidable structure became a source of contention between the Arabs and the Portuguese, with its strategic significance at the forefront. Despite the puppet rulership imposed by the Portuguese, the ruler of Malindi, the legendary fort’s jurisdiction expanded over Mombasa. Though challenged by Portugal’s dominance, the ruler’s son, Hasan bin Ahmed, assumed the mantle and navigated the turbulent political landscape. In an audacious move, the Portuguese captain asserted control by demanding the sultan to relinquish all grain stocks to Fort Jesus, leaving the local population grappling with this unprecedented provocation.

The partition of Africa by the Berlin Conference (1884/85) had significant implications for the pattern that missions later followed. Missionary societies, driven by a sense of protection, tended to respect their nation of origin. It was important for them to seek maximum safety and security. The granting of the Royal Charter to the Imperial British East Africa Company (I.B.E.A.C.) in 1888 played a crucial role in expanding the Protestant missionary activities. Sir William Mackinnon, the director of the company, actively encouraged the missions to extend their work into the interior, especially in areas where the company could ensure their well-being.

In the late 19th century, a group of brave missionaries embarked on a journey under the British Protectorate, led by a missionary named Steward. Their mission was to spread knowledge and compassion to the interior regions. However, their path was not easy. They faced great challenges and unfortunate circumstances along the way. Famine struck, and the mission suffered devastating losses. Additionally, they encountered violence during raids, leading to the loss of precious lives.

In the face of such adversity, the decision was made to relocate the mission to Kikuyu, a place where they hoped to find more stability. In 1898, under the guidance of Reverend Thomas Watson, the Scottish Mission successfully reached Kikuyu. Soon after, a mission station was established at Thogoto in 1899. It is worth mentioning that during this time, other missionary groups such as the Holy Ghost Fathers and the Consolata Missionaries were also making significant strides in bringing their message of faith to the region.

Despite the hardships and setbacks, these missionaries displayed unwavering dedication and an unyielding spirit. Their story serves as a testament to the power of compassion and the enduring human spirit in the face of challenges.

The British East Africa Protectorate was established with great determination and ambition, marked by the construction of the groundbreaking “Uganda Railway” that began in Mombasa in 1895. This remarkable railway project not only reached Nairobi in 1899 but also extended further to Kisumu in 1901, opening up new possibilities for exploration and commerce. It proved to be a game-changer for various missions venturing into the interior.

Undoubtedly, the construction of the railway provided a safe and cost-effective passage through the vast savannah and the challenging thorn-scrub territory, inhabited by the formidable Wakamba and Wamaasai tribes. Capitalizing on this opportunity, the CMS (Church Missionary Society) had already made their presence felt in Taveta as early as 1890.

The Church Missionary Society (CMS) holds a significant place in history. It was founded in London in 1799, by passionate Evangelical clergy of the Church of England who deeply cared about spreading the message of faith, personal conversion, and piety. Originally known as the Society for Missions in Africa and the East, it later became the Church Missionary Society for Africa and the East in 1812.

One particular location that held immense importance for the CMS was Taveta. This vibrant town served as a vital center for Arab Swahili traders and played a crucial role as a supply station for caravans undertaking journeys into the heart of Masailand. The CMS recognized the strategic value of Taveta and contributed significantly to its history.

To minimize potential conflicts, a “sphere of influence” doctrine was implemented, effectively demarcating boundaries. The imaginary line drawn between the Ngong Hills and Mount Kenya became a defining border, with the CMS securing the eastern region, while their Scottish counterparts claimed the western area. This agreement allowed for a more organized expansion of mission activities.

The CMS gradually extended its reach, establishing missions in Kihuruko in 1901, Weithaga in 1903, Kahuhia in 1906, and Mahiga in 1908. Meanwhile, the Church of Scotland set its sights on Nyeri and the southern part of Meru. However, contention arose when both the CMS and the United Methodist Free Churches Mission expressed interest in the Embu territory. The conflict created a temporary setback, delaying the missionary occupation of Embu by almost a year. Ultimately, the CMS emerged victorious, while the Methodists were granted permission to occupy Meru, appeasing their aspirations.

It is worth noting that the concept of “spheres of influence” primarily focused on negotiations and demarcations between religious entities, often sidelining the desires and aspirations of the African people. Astonishingly, the Anglicans even managed to hinder the expansion of the Consolata Fathers into the trans-Tana region for a considerable period, citing their actions as serving Britain’s interests and the cause of Protestantism, without

FORT JESUS

The Fort, built by the Portuguese in 1593-1596 to the designs of Giovanni Battista Cairati to protect the port of Mombasa, is one of the most outstanding and well preserved examples of 16th Portuguese military fortification and a landmark in the history of this type of construction.

Fort Jesus was built to secure the safety of Portuguese living on the East Coast of Africa. It has had a long history of hostilities of the interested parties that used to live in Mombasa. Perhaps no Fort in Africa has experienced such turbulence as Fort Jesus. Omani Arabs attacked the fort from 1696 to 1698.

Between 1631 and 1895, it was captured and recaptured, changing hands nine times, with the Omani Arabs winning control over it in 1698. Omani forces captured Fort Jesus in 1698, only to lose it in a revolt (1728).

In April 1729, the Mombasans revolted against the Portuguese and put under siege the garrison that was forced to surrender on 26 November 1729.

By 1730 the Omanis had expelled the remaining Portuguese from the coasts of present-day Kenya and Tanzania.

In 1895, the British transformed it into a prison, and held slaves in the torture rooms and cells in the inner part of the fort.

The Fort is today know as one of the best examples of 16th century Portuguese military architecture.

John Owalo/ African Independent Churches/ The Nomiya Luo Church

Christianity was introduced to Kenya by European and later American missionaries in 19th and 20th centuries. Christianity was indigenized after the 1960s after most of the African states gained independence for their colonial masters. Since indigenization, Christianity has gone through various transformations.

The African Israel Church Nineveh is one of the largest African Initiated Churches in Kenya. The Church was founded by David Zakayo Kivuli, who belonged to a small clan which though integrated into Bantu society was Nilotic in origin, being on the border of Luo and Luhya territory.

The Nomiya Luo Church, which became the first independent church in Kenya. Owalo proclaimed himself as a prophet equating similar to Jesus.

John Owalo was born in Siaya County of Kenya, Asembo Location, Marang’inya Sub Location. Raised in a humble background he joined Ojola Catholic Mission in 1907 to practice catechism. In 1908, Owalo married his first wife Elizabeth Alila according to traditional Luo customs and moved to Nairobi where he served his long-time friend Judge Sir Morrison as a cleaner. It is at this point that he taught at Rev Canon George Burns C.M.S School. He worked at the school for a shorter time because of doctrinal differences with the school authorities.

In 1909 Judge Morrison introduced Owalo to Rev Dr Scott who later played a wider role in the establishment of Alliance boy’s school. Rev Dr Scott appointed him as a teacher at Thogoto (KNA: JUDICIAL/ 1/297, KNA:
JUDICIAL/ 1/474).

Burglary incident took place at the mission station and Owalo became the chief suspect, he was imprisoned at Dagoretti correctional service under Sir Lyford, the assistant District Supretendant of prisons, he was later released for insufficient evidence.

At Thogoto he taught with and radicalized Kenya’s first president Jomo Kenyatta and other teachers (KNA: JUDICIAL/1/474/11). In October 1910 he joined Maseno School as a teacher, however Rev JJ Willis noted that Owalo was a radical and an incompetent teacher (Willis, 1912:197). In 1912 Owalo left for Oboch Maranginya village in Asembo with the sole aim of establishing the Nomiya Luo mission Church and school.

Though CMS at Maseno dismissed him as a ‘lunatic’, the colonial authority (Nyanza PC John Ainsworth) granted Owalo permission to start his own mission. In 1910, he founded the Nomiya Luo Church, which became the first independent church in Kenya.

Following dissatisfaction with the quality of education offered to Africans in missionary schools Owalo started the first African independent school movement. Owalo argued that the colonial government did not provide purely academic education but rather technical education whose aim was to ensure steady supply of cheap labour to European settlers, this kind of education was racial based since Europeans believed that Africans could not comprehend intellectual education (Barasa 2013).

It became evident to Owalo that colonial government and missionary education was misguided by Racism. Europeans evaluated and considered Africans to be at the lowest level of humandevelopment and evolution. Europeans argued that Africans had no capacity to comprehend intellectual education. On the other hand the British colonial government was discontent and suspicious about offering intellectual education to Africans based on Lord Valentine of Chirrol, following ‘the Indian unrest’ in which it was argued that intellectual education to blacks would lead to the rise of African nationalism (Barasa 2013).

Christian missionaries advocated for technical and vocational education for Africans since they believed in the virtue in working with hands a fact that Owalo disliked. In America Booker Taliaferro Washington 1856-1915 created economic avenues for Africans at Tuskegee Industrial Institute, Alabama by offering training in technical education. In a widely publicized speech of 1895 ‘the Atlanta compromise, Booker Taliaferro Washington abandoned racial equality advocacy for material progress. Further the 1909 Frazer report, strongly recommended for technical education for Africans (Barasa 2013). All this made Owalo to be totally
dissatisfied with colonial education

John Owalo a former teacher of various mission schools and his long-time friend Ezekiel Apindi established the Nomia Luo mission schools. This move excited Africans and influenced the emergence of several independent school movement (Stanfield, 2005).

In Kenya it was mainly in Nyanza, Western and Central Kenya. In Central two independent school movements came up: The Kikuyu Independent Schools Association (KISA) and the Kikuyu Karing’a Educational Association (KKEA) (Merley, 1963). Kovar (1970) argues that the rise of independent school movement was the result of uneasy alliance between the tribal elders and the new group of younger men who were more politically informed. African independent schools increased to 34 by 1933 with a total
student’s enrolment of 2,500 and by 1939, enrolment rose to 12,964. By 1936 there were 44
independent schools in Kenya with an enrolment of 3948 (Lonsdale, 1964). Independent schools
faced a myriad of challenges such as hostility from the colonial government and missionary
organizations, luck of trained and qualified teachers, inadequate infrastructure, misappropriation of
funds and poor management. As a result this schools came under the supervision of the D.E.B after
the state of emergency. In 1939 Peter Mbiu was a Master graduate of U.S.A based Colombia
University and the son of senior chief Koinange Wa Mbiu established Githunguri Teachers Training
College known later as African Teachers College. However it was closed in 1952-1957 following
the state of emergency.

The Luo and The Gospel

Folklore brings us captivating tales of the Luo peoples of Kenya, where the legend of Luanda Magere emerges. Born in the year 1720 to Abonyo Wuod Omolo and his beloved late mother Nyabera, Luanda Magere’s early years were marked by profound loss. Orphaned at a tender age, he found solace and care in the arms of his nurturing grandmother, Rapondi. Hailing from the Sidho clan in Kano, situated on the scenic shores of Lake Victoria, Luanda Magere became a symbol of strength and courage.

Described as a mighty warrior, Luanda Magere possessed extraordinary powers that seemed beyond human comprehension. Legends speak of his flesh transforming into impenetrable stone, rendering him invincible in battle. Arrows, spears, and clubs would simply deflect from his remarkable physique. His prowess was such that he could decimate entire armies singlehandedly, earning him the reverence of his people.

In bygone times, a dispute arose between the Luo community and their neighboring counterparts, the Kalenjin people, resulting in a series of conflicts. The Kalenjin elders, determined to retaliate against their previous defeats, devised a clever scheme. They proposed a union between Luanda Magere, a revered Luo warrior, and a Kalenjin woman named Maryann, under the guise of extending an olive branch.

Despite the cautionary advice from his own kin, Luanda Magere was captivated by love and acquiesced to the matrimonial arrangement. Unbeknownst to him, Maryann had ulterior motives. Lured by the promise of power and driven by an allegiance to her people, Maryann embarked on a clandestine mission to expose Luanda Magere’s vulnerability.

In a poignant turn of events, Luanda Magere fell ill, and his first wife was nowhere to be found. In desperation, he beseeched Maryann for assistance. Astonishingly, Luanda instructed her to make an incision upon his shadow with a blade, applying the prescribed medicine to the wounded silhouette. Miraculously, his shadow bled – an alarming revelation for Luanda Magere.

Exploiting this newfound knowledge, Maryann swiftly returned to her people, disclosing the secret of Luanda’s susceptible shadow. Seizing the opportunity, the Kalenjin tribe launched a fierce assault upon the Luo community. However, the indomitable Luo warriors fiercely defended their honor, and Luanda Magere, in his valorous resistance, struck down numerous Kalenjin fighters. The relentless onslaught ultimately compelled the Kalenjin to retreat.

But destiny had yet another twist in store for Luanda Magere. As the Kalenjin fled, a sagacious warrior recollected the vulnerability of Luanda’s shadow. Seizing the moment, he skillfully aimed his spear, impaling Luanda’s shadow. In an instant, Luanda Magere met his demise. Yet, instead of a conventional burial, his body mysteriously transformed into stone – an enduring testament to his legendary heroism.

LOU LAND AND ANGLICAN CHURCH

The Anglican church, established during the era of colonialism, vehemently suppressed the belief in personal spirituality and the existence of mystical energies possessed by such legends as Luanda Magere. Those who dared to embrace these notions faced the threat of ex-communication, as if their very souls hung in the balance. The early followers of Christ were expected to seek healing exclusively within the confines of mission hospitals, disregarding any consideration of alternative paths to wellness. Yet, under the cover of night and the guise of religious obedience, passionate individuals would clandestinely consult with witchdoctors and sorcerers. This syncretism, a fusion of conflicting beliefs, remains embedded within the Luo people even today. The deeply resonant Luo saying, “Ngaka item koni gi koni” (“You should try this side and that side”), encapsulates their perception of Christianity as a tool to be sought after when prayers seemingly fail, ready to be discarded in favor of the enchantments of the witchdoctor.

The proliferation of Pentecostal churches in Luo communities raises questions about their ability to challenge animistic beliefs effectively. While they claim to prioritize the power of Jesus over spiritual forces, their theological foundation seems weak and insufficient. Merely showcasing demonstrations of power without a deep understanding of its origin and purpose undermines the significance of such displays (Kraft 1991, 261). To truly minister to Luo individuals, a robust theological groundwork is vital. While acknowledging Jesus’ authority over spirits holds importance, it should not overshadow the importance of scriptural knowledge and fidelity to God, including the need for repentance.

In order to reconcile the Luo people to Christ, the following should be emphasized:

1. The Book of Galatians

BRICS / G7/ NEW DEVELOPMENT BANK

“BRICS” symbolizes the thrilling and dynamic alliance of swiftly emerging national economies! These powerhouse countries are on the brink of making a substantial impact on the global stage, forging ahead with unwavering determination and unyielding ambition. With their combined might and boundless potential, BRICS serves as a shining beacon of hope and progress, poised to reshape the very fabric of our interconnected world. Brace yourself for the remarkable ascent of BRICS, as they spearhead the revolution of the global economic landscape, leaving an indelible mark and evoking admiration with their resolute passion and unwavering drive! The following countries form this monumental alliance:

1. Brazil,
2. Russia,
3. India,
4. China and
5. South Africa.

The term was originally coined in 2001 as “BRIC” by the Goldman Sachs economist Jim O’Neill in his report, Building Better Global Economic BRICs (Global Economics Paper No: 66) [PDF] External.

At that time, the economies of Brazil, Russia, India and China experienced significant growth, raising concerns regarding their impact on the global economy. Foreign ministers of these countries began meeting informally in 2006, which led to more formal annual summits beginning in 2009.

Generally speaking, these meetings are held to improve economic conditions within BRICS countries and give their leaders the opportunity to work in collaboration regarding these efforts. In December of 2010, South Africa joined the informal group and changed the acronym to BRICS. Together these emerging markets represent 42% of the world population and account for over 31% of the world’s GDP according to the World Factbook.

The BRICS, known as an influential and dynamic group of emerging economies, present a significant global presence, offering their own unique initiatives and perspectives alongside the G7 bloc of advanced economies. Their constructive engagement contributes to a diverse and vibrant world stage, fostering collaboration and positive opportunities for growth and development.

1. The New Development Bank,
2. The Contingent Reserve Arrangement,
3. The BRICS payment system,
4. The BRICS Joint Statistical Publication and
5. The BRICS basket reserve currency.

Since its inception in 2022, the extraordinary BRICS group has been relentlessly striving to expand its membership, attracting the fervent interest of numerous aspiring developing countries. This awe-inspiring union of nations has been met with both resounding acclaim and fervent criticism, evoking fiery debates among countless enlightened commentators. Brace yourself for the exhilarating journey of the BRICS!

1. Countries that have applied for membership
2. Algeria (applied in 2022)
3. Argentina (applied in 2022)
4. Bahrain
5. Bangladesh (applied in 2023)
6. Egypt (applied in 2023)
7. Ethiopia (applied in 2023)
8. Indonesia
9. Iran(applied in 2022)
10. Saudi Arabia
11. United Arab Emirates
12. In addition, Afghanistan, Angola, Belarus, Comoros, Cuba, D.R. Congo, Gabon, Guinea-Bissau, Honduras, Kazakhstan, Mexico, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Pakistan, Senegal, Sudan, Syria, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkey, Uganda, Uruguay, Venezuela, and Zimbabwe have expressed interest in membership of BRICS.

The Group of Seven (G7) is an intergovernmental political forum consisting of

1. Canada,
2. France,
3. Germany,
4. Italy,
5. Japan,
6. the United Kingdom and
7. the United States;

The European Union (EU) is an alliance that upholds fundamental values such as pluralism, liberal democracy, and representative governance. It consists of non-enumerated members who work together to promote these principles. In the year 2020, the G7 members, being prominent IMF advanced economies, collectively possess a staggering wealth exceeding $200 trillion. Notably, they contribute to a significant portion of the global gross domestic product, ranging from 30 to 43 percent, while their population represents merely 10 percent of the world’s inhabitants, totaling around 770 million individuals. Their profound influence extends to various spheres, including political, economic, diplomatic, and military matters, cementing their positions as key actors in global affairs.

Originating from an ad hoc gathering of finance ministers in 1973, the G7 has since become a formal, high-profile venue for discussing and coordinating solutions to major global issues, especially in the areas of trade, security, economics, and climate change. Each member’s head of government or state, along with the EU’s Commission President and Council President, meet annually at the G7 Summit; other high-ranking officials of the G7 and the EU meet throughout the year. Representatives of other states and international organizations are often invited as guests, with Russia having been a formal member (as part of the G8) from 1997 to 2014.

The G7 is not based on a treaty and has no permanent secretariat or office. It is organized through a presidency that rotates annually among the member states, with the presiding state setting the group’s priorities and hosting the summit; Japan presides for 2023. While lacking a legal or institutional basis, the G7 is widely considered to wield significant international influence; it has catalyzed or spearheaded several major global initiatives, including efforts to combat the HIV/AIDS pandemic, provide financial aid to developing countries, and address climate change through the 2015 Paris Agreement. However, the group has been criticized by observers for its allegedly outdated and limited membership, narrow global representation, and ineffectualness. It is also opposed by anti-globalization groups, which often protest at summits. It has also been widely criticized as a Western “imperialist summit”, as the members of the grouping all have varying ties to historical and modern day imperialism.

The New Development Bank, also known as the BRICS Development Bank, is an extraordinary symbol of collaboration and progress amongst the five powerful nations – Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa. This exceptional multilateral development bank is fueled by a collective determination to transform the world through remarkable infrastructure projects, injecting life into communities and creating opportunities for countless individuals.

With an awe-inspiring authorized lending capacity of up to $34 billion every year, the NDB is poised to ignite a significant wave of positive change. Its focus on infrastructure development is absolutely vital in unleashing the true potential of nations, paving the way for innovation, connectivity, and sustainable growth.

Embracing its role as a catalyst for progress, the NDB is steadfast in its mission to uplift nations and foster prosperity. It is fortified by an initial capital of $50 billion, with a visionary plan to turbocharge its wealth to $100 billion in the future. Such immense resources will undoubtedly unlock a world of possibilities and enable the realization of grand ambitions.

Delivering on its promises, the NDB has already undertaken an impressive portfolio of 53 projects, valued at approximately $15 billion. These transformative initiatives are propelling communities forward, driving economic development, and improving the lives of people in immeasurable ways.

What’s even more remarkable is that the NDB continues to expand its reach, as demonstrated by the recent inclusion of Bangladesh, Egypt, the United Arab Emirates, and Uruguay as new members. The growing NDB family is a testament to the bank’s unwavering commitment to global collaboration and the pursuit of shared prosperity.

In summary, the New Development Bank is not just a financial institution, but an embodiment of hope, ambition, and unity. With its dedicated endeavors, it is reshaping the world and leaving an indelible mark on the path towards a brighter future.

BRICS Pro Tempore Presidency: A Questionable Endeavor
The BRICS group, in their annual summits, elects one of the heads of state from its member countries to serve as the President Pro Tempore. In 2019, this prestigious position was held by the president of Brazil. However, one must question the effectiveness and impact of such a rotating presidency.

The theme of the 11th BRICS summit was “BRICS: economic growth for an innovative future.” Yet, it is hard to ignore the skepticism surrounding the accomplishments of the Brazilian Pro Tempore Presidency. The proclaimed priorities for 2019 include

1. Strengthening cooperation in science, technology, and innovation,
2. Boosting the digital economy, and
3. Combating transnational crime.

However, one wonders if these priorities were truly achieved or merely met with empty promises. Now, the pro tempore presidency has been passed on to Russia. Their stated goals involve

1. Investing in BRICS countries to enhance their economies,
2. Cooperating in the energy and environmental sectors,
3. Assisting young children, and
4. Finding resolutions on migration and peacekeeping.

Will Russia’s presidency be any different from its predecessors? Will these goals be effectively realized or remain distant aspirations?

In light of the skepticism surrounding the BRICS Pro Tempore Presidency, it is crucial to scrutinize the actual impact and outcomes of these leadership roles. Only through critical examination can we determine if these endeavors truly serve the interests and aspirations of the BRICS member countries.

BRICS payment system: A Swift Alternative with a Twist!

Alright, hold on to your hats, folks, because the BRICS nations have something up their sleeves! Picture this: a secret plan brewing at the 2015 BRICS summit to shake things up in the financial world. The masterminds behind this mischievous plot initiated talks for a payment system that would give the Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication (SWIFT) system a run for its money. Quite literally!

Now, you might be wondering, why on earth would they do that? Well, my friends, the mavericks at the Central Bank of Russia had a stroke of genius. They thought, “Why rely on a single system when we can have a backup plan?” And thus, the idea of a BRICS payment system was born. It’s like having a spare parachute while skydiving – just in case things go haywire.

But wait! That’s not all. Our friends from China were so inspired by this audacity that they decided to join the fun. They created their own SWIFT-alternative called the Cross-Border Inter-Bank Payments System (CIPS). It’s like a top-secret code language for financial institutions worldwide, ensuring secure and reliable transactions. It’s as if they’re whispering, “We’ve got this under control, folks!”

And guess what? India, Russia, and Brazil also have their own tricks up their sleeves. India conjured up the Structured Financial Messaging System (SFMS), Russia boasts the System for Transfer of Financial Messages (SPFS), and Brazil has its very own Pix. It’s like a group of superheroes each with their unique powers, ready to shake up the financial world – in their own quirky way!

So, my friends, keep an eye on these BRICS nations. They’re not just playing by the rules; they’re rewriting the game entirely. Prepare for some financial adventures with a twist, because with BRICS, the possibilities are endless!

Potential common currency
Certainly! BRICS countries are actively considering the possibility of establishing a new common currency or a similar system during the upcoming 2023 BRICS summit in South Africa. The primary aim behind such an initiative would be to promote fair and simplified international trade while significantly reducing transaction costs. This idea has gained traction, as highlighted by Mikatekiso Kubayi, a specialist in BRICS affairs. In an article for the esteemed American magazine Foreign Policy, former White House senior advisor Joseph W. Sullivan suggests that “a BRICS-issued currency would be groundbreaking” due to the collective economic power of these emerging economies. In fact, their combined GDP now surpasses not only that of the reigning hegemon, the United States, but also the entire G-7 group. Sullivan argues that the BRICS countries have the potential to attain a level of self-sufficiency in international trade that has proven elusive for other currency unions, such as the Eurozone. This is primarily due to the geographic diversity of its member nations, which enables the BRICS to offer a broader range of goods and services.

Hiberno-Scottish mission / Celtic Christianity

Celtic Christianity is an enchanting and vibrant form of Christianity that flourished in the Celtic-speaking world during the magical era of the Early Middle Ages. It is a rich tapestry that weaves together the deep spirituality and unique traditions of the Celtic peoples. Embracing a sense of unity and reverence, the Celtic Church stood apart from its Roman counterparts, brimming with its own distinct practices and mystical beliefs.

In this mystical realm, the Celtic Christians found solace and inspiration amidst the sacred landscapes of Ireland and Britain. Their worship was infused with a profound connection to nature, intertwining the spiritual with the earthly. Deeply rooted in the wisdom of ancient Celtic traditions, they celebrated the divine in the ordinary, finding God’s presence in the rustle of leaves, the babbling brooks, and the mystical mist that cloaked their sacred sites.

The Celtic Christians held dear certain customs and rituals that set them apart from the wider Christian world. They embraced a profound reverence for creation, viewing all living beings as vessels of divine light. Their spirituality was deeply intertwined with the cycles of nature, honoring the seasons and the rhythms of the Earth. The Celtic Christians also cherished the wisdom of the saints and hermits, seeking their guidance as they embarked on their own spiritual journeys.

So, let us step into the world of Celtic Christianity, where the veil between heaven and earth is thin, and the beauty of nature dances hand in hand with the divine. It is a realm of untamed wonder and boundless reverence, beckoning us to explore its depths and awaken the Celtic spirit within us all.

1. A distinctive system for determining the dating of Easter,
2. A style of monastic tonsure,
3. A unique system of penance, and
4. The popularity of going into “exile for Christ”.

The term Celtic Church is deprecated by many historians as it implies a unified and identifiable entity entirely separate from that of mainstream Western Christendom. For this reason, many prefer the term Insular Christianity. As Patrick Wormald explained, “One of the common misconceptions is that there was a Roman Church to which the Celtic Church was nationally opposed.”

Popularized by German historian Lutz von Padberg, the term “Iroschottisch” is used to describe this supposed dichotomy between Irish-Scottish and Roman Christianity. As a whole, Celtic-speaking areas were part of Latin Christendom at a time when there was significant regional variation of liturgy and structure. But a general collective veneration of the Papacy was no less intense in Celtic-speaking areas.[

Nonetheless, distinctive traditions developed and spread to both Ireland and Great Britain, especially in the 6th and 7th centuries. Some elements may have been introduced to Ireland by the Romano-British Saint Patrick, and later, others from Ireland to Great Britain through the Irish mission system of Saint Columba. However, the histories of the Irish, Welsh, Scots, Breton, Cornish, and Manx Churches diverge significantly after the 8th century.[9] Interest in the subject has led to a series of Celtic Christian Revival movements, which have shaped popular perceptions of the Celts and their Christian religious practices.

The Hiberno-Scottish mission was a series of expeditions in the 6th and 7th centuries by Gaelic missionaries originating from Ireland that spread Celtic Christianity in Scotland, Wales, England and Merovingian France. Celtic Christianity spread first within the Kingdom of Dál Riata, within Ireland and the western coast of Scotland. Since the 8th and 9th centuries, these early missions were called ‘Celtic Christianity’. There is dispute over the relationship of the Hiberno-Scottish mission to Catholic Christianity. Catholic sources claim it functioned under the authority of the Holy See, while Protestant historians highlight conflicts between Celtic and Catholic clergy. There is agreement that the mission was not strictly coordinated.

Corning writes that scholars have identified three major strands of thought that have influenced the popular conceptions of Celtic Christianity: The first arose in the English Reformation, when the Church of England declared itself separate from papal authority. Protestant writers of this time popularised the idea of an indigenous British Christianity that opposed the foreign “Roman” church and was purer (and proto-Protestant) in thought. The English church, they claimed, was not forming a new institution, but casting off the shackles of Rome and returning to its true roots as the indigenous national church of Britain.
The Romantic movement of the 18th century, in particular Romantic notions of the noble savage and the intrinsic qualities of the “Celtic race”, further influenced ideas about Celtic Christianity. Romantics idealised the Celts as a primitive, bucolic people who were far more poetic, spiritual, and freer of rationalism than their neighbours. The Celts were seen as having an inner spiritual nature that shone through even after their form of Christianity had been destroyed by the authoritarian and rational Rome.

In the 20th and 21st centuries, ideas about “Celtic Christians” combined with appeals by certain modern churches, modern pagan groups, and New Age groups seeking to recover something of ancient spirituality that they believe is missing from the modern world. For these groups, Celtic Christianity becomes a cipher for whatever is lost in the modern religious experience. Corning notes that these notions say more about modern desires than about the reality of Christianity in the Early Middle Ages. Some associate the early Christians of Celtic-speaking Galatia (purportedly recipients of Paul’s Epistle to the Galatians) with later Christians of north-western Europe’s Celtic fringe.

Areas where a Celtic language is used on a daily basis are;

1. Wales,
2. Scotland, and
3. Ireland.

There were three main branches of Celts, and within these branches were many tribes. The three main branches were: 

1. Brythonic (also called Britons), who lived around modern-day Cornwall and Wales. 
2. Gaelic (also called Gaels), who were based in Scotland, Ireland, and
3. The Isle of Man.

Germanic Peoples, Teutonic, Suebian, or Gothic / The Franks/ Celtic People & ETC

The origins of the Germanic peoples are obscure. The origin of the Indo-European languages is believed to have been in the merger of three peoples in the region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. One of the three excelled in warfare, one in agriculture and one in metal-working. The synthesis of these three strengths produced a folk that spread east and west. The western branch splits into the ancestors of the

1. Baltic,
2. The Celtic,
3. The Germanic and
4. The Slavic tribes as well as a welter of smaller groupings such as those of the Latins and Greeks.

During the late Bronze Age, Germanic people are believed to have inhabited southern Sweden, the Danish peninsula, and northern Germany between the Ems River on the west, the Oder River on the east, and the Harz Mountains on the south. German ethnicity emerged in medieval times among the descendants of the Romanized Germanic peoples in the area of modern western Germany, between the Rhine and Elbe rivers, particularly

1. The Franks,
2. Frisians,
3. Saxons,
4. Thuringii,
5. Alemanni and
6. Baiuvarii.

The first written record of the Germanic tribes was by the Roman historian Tacitus in 98 BCE. German tribes were moving into the region that is now southwestern Germany about the same time the Romans were conquering Gaul. Julius Caesar defeated the Suevian tribe in 70 BCE and thus established the Rhine River as the boundary between Roman and German territory. But a Roman fear of militaristic peoples on their borders prompted the Roman governor Varus to invade the territory beyond the Rhine. Those Romans were soundly defeated in the year 9 AD at the Battle of Teutoburg Forest. The leader of the victorious Germans was a German who had received military training in the Roman army. This German victory freed the German tribes of any serious threat of domination by the Romans, although the Romans did later conquer some territories beyond the Rhine and the Danube.

The king of the Franks, Clovis, ruled over the mixed Celtic-Roman-German population of Gaul from 486 to 511. Clovis’s line, the Merovingians, ended when Pepin the Younger gained the throne of the Franks in 741. His line became known as the Carolingians.

The greatest of the Carolingians was Charlemagne (Charles the Great) who ruled the Franks from 768 to 814. Charlemagne conquered the Lombard kingdom of north Italy in 774. In 800 Charlemagne was declared Holy Roman Emperor by the Pope. Charlemagne’s son Louis continued the rule of the Frankish Holy Roman Empire which stretched from the Spanish Marches to what is now Germany and Austria. But this magnificient empire was too large and unwieldy to rule so shortly after Louis the Pious died in 840 the empire was divided, in 843 by the Treaty of Verdun, between three of Charlemagne’s grandsons. The title of Holy Roman Emperor went to the ruler of the Middle Kingdom.

The Germanic peoples today are considered Germanic because they speak a Germanic language. German is part of this branch of Indo-European languages but not the sole ‘twig’, so to speak. Among it’s sister languages are

1. Dutch,
2. English,
3. Afrikaans and
4. Yiddish, belonging to the West Germanic languages, as well as
5. The Scandinavian or North Germanic languages, including Icelandic and Faroese.

In Europe the first Indo-European tribes to make significant inroads are the Greeks. They move south into Greece and the Aegean from the 18th century BC. Gradually other tribes speaking Indo-European languages spread throughout Europe.

From an early date Germans are established in Denmark and southern Sweden. Balts settle along the southern and eastern coast of the Baltic Sea. Tribes using an Italic group of languages descend into Italy. Across the centre of Europe the Celts move gradually west through Germany into France, northern Spain and Britain.

In the 2nd century BC, Germanic tribes move south and east from Scandinavia. The Goths and the Vandals drive the Balts east along the coast of the Baltic. Other Germans press south along the Rhine as far as the Danube, forcing the Helvetii – a Celtic tribe – to take refuge among the Swiss mountains.

Two German tribes, the Teutones and the Cimbri, even strike so far south as to threaten Roman armies in southern France and northern Italy. They are finally defeated and pressed back in 101 BC. But from the Roman point of view a long-term threat has been identified – that of the German barbarians whose territory is now the region beyond the Rhine and the Danube.

By the 3rd century AD various German tribal confederations, all of whom will leave a lasting mark on European history, are ranged along the natural borders of the Roman empire. They have settled in the territories east of the Rhine and north of the Danube and Black Sea. From here, in the great upheavals of the 4th and 5th century (known as the Völkerwanderung, ‘migration of the peoples’), they will move throughout western Europe.

In the northwest, beyond the lower reaches of the Rhine, are the Franks. Further south, around the Main valley, are the Burgundians. East of the Alps, near the Tisza river, are the Vandals. Beyond them, occupying a far greater range of territory than the others, are the Goths.

The Goths are by now split into two groups. Those further east are known as the Ostrogoths, apparently meaning eastern Goths. The western group are the Visigoths, often said to mean western Goths. They prefer to intepret the name as ‘valiant’ Goths, declaring it unlucky to be associated with the west in which the sun sinks and dies.

The Visigoths occupy the region between the Danube and the Dniester. Beyond them the empire of the Ostrogoths stretches over a vast area north of the Black Sea as far as the river Don.

All these close neighbours of the Romans make their presence felt through continual raids into the empire. Coping with them becomes the main activity of the Roman legions. But gradually closer relationships are established through diplomacy and trade – meaning mainly a supply of slaves by the tribes in return for grain, wine and textiles from the Romans.

By the early 4th century, in the reign of Constantine, an element of stability has been achieved to the benefit both of the Romans and of their more primitive neighbours. But it is about to be upset, from about AD 370, by devastating incursions from the east.

The most significant (in the long term) of all the German tribes establish themselves south of the Rhine where it reaches the sea, moving from what is now the Netherlands into Belgium. They are the Franks. By the end of the 4th century they too – like the Visigoths – are enlisted by the Romans as federates, living on Roman territory and expected to defend the imperial borders.

Instead, in about 430, they attempt to push further south into Gaul. Halted by a Roman army in the following year, they settle near Tournai. This becomes the base from which, under Clovis, the Franks subdue almost the whole of Gaul by the end of the 5th century.

Some of the largest Germanic kingdoms included those of the Franks and Goths after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The Franks ruled expansive areas of Western Europe under the Merovingian Dynasty. The Ostrogoths ruled a large kingdom centered in Italy, while the Visigoths ruled in Spain.

SOURCES

 http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/plaintexthistories.asp?historyid=ac67#ixzz87l8ggZd2

Bretton Woods and the Birth of the World Bank (IMF)

During the turbulent times of the Second World War on July 1, 1944, representatives from forty-four nations convened at the serene Mount Washington Hotel in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire. Their solemn mission was to forge a framework of economic stability and international collaboration amidst the chaos of war. This historic gathering, known as the Bretton Woods Conference, yielded the Articles of Agreement for the establishment of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). These institutions were designed to facilitate the recovery of war-torn nations and foster sustainable global growth in the post-war era.

The resounding success of the Bretton Woods conference was the culmination of meticulous planning and extensive deliberation. Countless hours were dedicated to shaping the final Articles, which effectively incorporated the pioneering ideas put forth by the United States and the invaluable contributions from the United Kingdom. Equally noteworthy were the consultations with various nations, each presenting their distinct vision for an international bank. These collective efforts harmoniously laid the solid groundwork for the conference’s monumental achievements.

The historic conference, formally known as the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference, took place on July 1, 1944, and witnessed the participation of an impressive 730 delegates. Stepping into the role of conference president was the competent U.S. Treasury Secretary, Henry Morgenthau Jr. Leading Commission II, dedicated to the proposal for a bank for reconstruction and development, was the distinguished Lord John Maynard Keynes of the U.K. delegation. An international panel including representatives from Mexico, Chile, Brazil, Russia, Belgium, the Netherlands, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Canada, China, and India actively engaged in the discussions. The focal point of the deliberations revolved around the proposed bank’s capital structure and its ambitious goals of reconstruction and development. Throughout the conference, committees diligently examined the preliminary draft, while also soliciting additional suggestions and proposals to shape the future of financial resilience.

On July 22, 1944, the Final Act of the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference marked a historic milestone. This significant event witnessed the signing of charters outlining the ambitious goals and robust mechanisms of both the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD). While there were still decisions to be made, delegates from various nations convened and took a resolute step towards shaping the future. Subsequently, on December 27, 1945, the IBRD Articles of Agreement were ratified during a momentous gathering in Washington, DC, comprising representatives from twenty-one countries who became the Bank’s pioneers. This powerful act of unity laid the foundation for the Bank’s impactful journey ahead.

During the historic conference, a vast amount of vital documentation was generated. These included paperwork, draft reports, notes, correspondence, and other valuable records. Now, you might wonder, where are these invaluable archives stored? Interestingly, at the time of the conference, the World Bank technically did not exist, and therefore, it did not bear the responsibility of recordkeeping. As the conference concluded, country delegates likely took the records back to their respective nations. As a result, it is highly probable that archival records relating to the Bretton Woods conference can be found in various archival institutions across the forty-four countries in attendance. Nevertheless, the United States, being the host country, possesses a remarkably comprehensive collection of records from the conference. Moreover, the IMF Archives have also become a significant repository for the records maintained by the conference secretariat. It is worth noting that while the World Bank Group Archives contain records related to Bretton Woods, they were collected selectively by Bank units and staff for reference purposes, therefore, the collection is not exhaustive but nonetheless noteworthy.

US supposedly have records pertaining to Bretton Woods, which supposedly include: alleged early draft proposals by countries; conference proceedings and working documents that may or may not be authentic; pamphlets floating around that may or may not contain accurate information; government reports that may or may not be reliable; and questionable drafts and commentary on the Articles leading up to the December 1945 ratification. Additionally, US has internal memoranda from the IBRD, which may or may not be credible, as well as annotated copies of the Articles that have been subject to interpretation and amendments since the Bank’s alleged commencement of operations in 1946.

IRISH / CELTIC BRANCHES/ IRELAND

Irish, also known as Gaelic, is a Goidelic language of the Insular Celtic branch of the Celtic language family, which is a part of the Indo-European language family. Irish is indigenous to the island of Ireland[10] and was the population’s first language until the 19th century, when English gradually became dominant, particularly in the last decades of the century. Today, Irish is still commonly spoken as a first language in areas of Ireland collectively known as the Gaeltacht, in which only 2% of Ireland’s population lived in 2016.[11] It is also spoken by a larger group of habitual but non-traditional speakers, mostly in urban areas where the majority are second-language speakers.

Irish is a Celtic language (as English is a Germanic language, French a Romance language, and so on). This means that it is a member of the Celtic family of languages. Its “sister” languages are Scottish, Gaelic, and Manx (Isle of Man); its more distant “cousins” are Welsh, Breton, and Cornish.

84.6% of the Irish population are Christian. 1.3% of the Irish population are Muslim. and 10% of the Irish population have no religion. Eurobarometer Polls.

For most of recorded Irish history, Irish was the dominant language of the Irish people, who took it with them to other regions, such as Scotland and the Isle of Man, where Middle Irish gave rise to Scottish Gaelic and Manx. It was also, for a period, spoken widely across Canada, with an estimated 200,000–250,000 daily Canadian speakers of Irish in 1890. On the island of Newfoundland, a unique dialect of Irish developed before falling out of use in the early 20th century.

Ireland is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean, in north-western Europe. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, and St George’s Channel. Ireland is the second-largest island of the British Isles, the third-largest in Europe, and the twentieth-largest in the world.

Geopolitically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland (officially named Ireland), an independent state covering five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, which is part of the United Kingdom. As of 2022, the population of the entire island is just over 7 million, with 5.1 million living in the Republic of Ireland and 1.9 million in Northern Ireland, ranking it the second-most populous island in Europe after Great Britain.

The geography of Ireland comprises relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain, with several navigable rivers extending inland. Its lush vegetation is a product of its mild but changeable climate which is free of extremes in temperature. Much of Ireland was woodland until the end of the Middle Ages. Today, woodland makes up about 10% of the island, compared with a European average of over 33%, with most of it being non-native conifer plantations. The Irish climate is influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and thus very moderate, and winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area, although summers are cooler than those in continental Europe. Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant.

Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century AD. The island was Christianised from the 5th century onwards. Following the 12th century Anglo-Norman invasion, England claimed sovereignty. However, English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th–17th century Tudor conquest, which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain.

In the 1690s, a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters, and was extended during the 18th century. With the Acts of Union in 1801, Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. A war of independence in the early 20th century was followed by the partition of the island, leading to the creation of the Irish Free State, which became increasingly sovereign over the following decades, and Northern Ireland, which remained a part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s. This subsided following the Good Friday Agreement in 1998. In 1973, the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom, and Northern Ireland as part of it, did the same. In 2020, the United Kingdom, Northern Ireland included, left what was by then the European Union.

Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the field of literature. Alongside mainstream Western culture, a strong indigenous culture exists, as expressed through Gaelic games, Irish music, Irish language, and Irish dance. The island’s culture shares many features with that of Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as association football, rugby, horse racing, golf, and boxing.

Christianity had arrived in Ireland by the early 5th century, and spread through the works of early missionaries such as Palladius, and Saint Patrick. atrick preached the gospel in a way that the Celts in Ireland could understand it and receive it without changing the essence of the message of the gospel. The gospel was shared in their native language in a way that addressed their hearts and touched their lives. Christianity influenced new laws for society. Other aspects of Celtic Ireland, such as how people lived and worked, changed – only slowly. Ireland became literate – reading and writing came to Ireland. Irish monks became great Latin scholars.

Although predominantly Roman Catholic, Ireland today is a multi-cultural society where all religions are embraced and respected as playing vital roles in the societal make-up of the country. Celts in pre-Christian Ireland were pagans and had gods and goddesses, but they converted to Christianity in the fourth century.mDeities found in many regions include Lugus, the tribal god Toutatis, the thunder god Taranis, the horned god Cernunnos, the horse and fertility goddess Epona, the divine son Maponos, as well as Belenos, Ogmios, and Sucellos.

The druids, the early Celtic priesthood, taught the doctrine of transmigration of souls and discussed the nature and power of the gods. The Irish believed in an otherworld, imagined sometimes as underground and sometimes as islands in the sea. A druid was a member of the high-ranking priestly class in ancient Celtic cultures. Druids were religious leaders as well as legal authorities, adjudicators, lorekeepers, medical professionals and political advisors. Druids left no written accounts.

The religion of Irish immigrants in America was Roman Catholicism, although there were some Protestants. The Irish faced hardship and discrimination because they made up a small population of Roman Catholics in a sea of Protestant Americans.

CELTICS/ GAULS/ BRITONS

Quick Facts About the Celts

1. The first record of the existence of the Celts dates back to 700 BC
2. The Celts were not ‘one people’ – they were a collection of tribes
3. Contrary to popular belief, they weren’t from Ireland or Scotland
4. The Celts are thought to have arrived in Ireland around 500 BC
5. Ogham was a Celtic script that was used in Ireland from the 4th century
6. The Celts lived across much of Europe
7. They were fierce warriors (they beat the Romans on a number of occasions)
8. The use of storytelling was brought to Ireland by the Celts (this gave birth to Irish mythology and Irish folklore)
9. Where did the Celts come from originally? The exact origin of the Celts is a topic that causes a lot of heated debate online. Although it’s widely believed that Celtic culture dates as far back as 1200 BC, their exact origin is unknown.

The Celts or Celtic peoples were a collection of Indo-European peoples in Europe and Anatolia, identified by their use of Celtic languages and other cultural similarities. Major Celtic groups included

1. The Gauls; the Celtiberians and Gallaeci of Iberia;
2. The Britons and Gaels of Britain and Ireland;
3. The Boii; and
4. The Galatians.

The relation between ethnicity, language and culture in the Celtic world is unclear and debated; for example over the ways in which the Iron Age people of Britain and Ireland should be called Celts. In current scholarship, ‘Celt’ primarily refers to ‘speakers of Celtic languages’ rather than to a single ethnic group.

The history of pre-Celtic Europe and Celtic origins is debated. The traditional “Celtic from the East” theory, says the proto-Celtic language arose in the late Bronze Age Urnfield culture of central Europe, named after grave sites in southern Germany, which flourished from around 1200 BC. This theory links the Celts with the Iron Age Hallstatt culture which followed it (c. 1200–500 BC), named for the rich grave finds in Hallstatt, Austria, and with the following La Tène culture (c. 450 BC onward), named after the La Tène site in Switzerland. It proposes that Celtic culture spread westward and southward from these areas by diffusion or migration. A newer theory, “Celtic from the West”, suggests proto-Celtic arose earlier, was a lingua franca in the Atlantic Bronze Age coastal zone, and spread eastward. Another newer theory, “Celtic from the Centre”, suggests proto-Celtic arose between these two zones, in Bronze Age Gaul, then spread in various directions. After the Celtic settlement of Southeast Europe in the 3rd century BC, Celtic culture reached as far east as central Anatolia, Turkey.

The earliest undisputed examples of Celtic language are the Lepontic inscriptions from the 6th century BC. Continental Celtic languages are attested almost exclusively through inscriptions and place-names. Insular Celtic languages are attested from the 4th century AD in Ogham inscriptions, though they were clearly being spoken much earlier. Celtic literary tradition begins with Old Irish texts around the 8th century AD. Elements of Celtic mythology are recorded in early Irish and early Welsh literature. Most written evidence of the early Celts comes from Greco-Roman writers, who often grouped the Celts as barbarian tribes. They followed an ancient Celtic religion overseen by druids.

The Celts were often in conflict with the Romans, such as in the Roman–Gallic wars, the Celtiberian Wars, the conquest of Gaul and conquest of Britain. By the 1st century AD, most Celtic territories had become part of the Roman Empire. By c. 500, due to Romanization and the migration of Germanic tribes, Celtic culture had mostly become restricted to Ireland, western and northern Britain, and Brittany. Between the 5th and 8th centuries, the Celtic-speaking communities in these Atlantic regions emerged as a reasonably cohesive cultural entity. They had a common linguistic, religious and artistic heritage that distinguished them from surrounding cultures.

Insular Celtic culture diversified into that of the Gaels (Irish, Scots and Manx) and the Celtic Britons (Welsh, Cornish, and Bretons) of the medieval and modern periods. A modern Celtic identity was constructed as part of the Romanticist Celtic Revival in Britain, Ireland, and other European territories such as Galicia Today, Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Welsh, and Breton are still spoken in parts of their former territories, while Cornish and Manx are undergoing a revival.

The first recorded use of the name ‘Celts’ – as Κελτοί (Keltoi) in Ancient Greek – was by Greek geographer Hecataeus of Miletus in 517 BC,[24] when writing about a people living near Massilia (modern Marseille), southern Gaul. In the fifth century BC, Herodotus referred to Keltoi living around the source of the Danube and in the far west of Europe. The etymology of Keltoi is unclear. Possible roots include Indo-European *kʲel ‘to hide’ (seen also in Old Irish ceilid, and Modern Welsh celu), *kʲel ‘to heat’ or *kel ‘to impel’. It may come from the Celtic language. Linguist Kim McCone supports this view and notes that Celt- is found in the names of several ancient Gauls such as Celtillus, father of Vercingetorix. He suggests it meant the people or descendants of “the hidden one”, noting the Gauls claimed descent from an underworld god (according to Commentarii de Bello Gallico), and linking it with the Germanic Hel. Others view it as a name coined by Greeks; among them linguist Patrizia de Bernardo Stempel, who suggests it meant “the tall ones”.

In the first century BC, Roman leader Julius Caesar reported that the Gauls called themselves ‘Celts’, Latin: Celtae, in their own tongue. Thus whether it was given to them by others or not, it was used by the Celts themselves. Greek geographer Strabo, writing about Gaul towards the end of the first century BC, refers to the “race which is now called both Gallic and Galatic”, though he also uses Celtica as another name for Gaul. He reports Celtic peoples in Iberia too, calling them Celtiberi and Celtici. Pliny the Elder noted the use of Celtici in Lusitania as a tribal surname, which epigraphic findings have confirmed.

A Latin name for the Gauls, Galli (pl.), may come from a Celtic ethnic name, perhaps borrowed into Latin during the Celtic expansion into Italy from the early fifth century BC. Its root may be Proto-Celtic *galno, meaning “power, strength” (whence Old Irish gal “boldness, ferocity”, Welsh gallu “to be able, power”). The Greek name Γαλάται (Galatai, Latinized Galatae) most likely has the same origin, referring to the Gauls who invaded southeast Europe and settled in Galatia. The suffix -atai might be a Greek inflection.[36] Linguist Kim McCone suggests it comes from Proto-Celtic *galatis (“ferocious, furious”), and was not originally an ethnic name but a name for young warrior bands. He says “If the Gauls’ initial impact on the Mediterranean world was primarily a military one typically involving fierce young *galatīs, it would have been natural for the Greeks to apply this name for the type of Keltoi that they usually encountered”.

Because Classical writers did not call the inhabitants of Britain and Ireland Κελτοί (Keltoi) or Celtae,[5][8][9] some scholars prefer not to use the term for the Iron Age inhabitants of those islands. However, they spoke Celtic languages, shared other cultural traits, and Roman historian Tacitus says the Britons resembled the Gauls in customs and religion.

Celts in Britain
It is believed that the Celts arrived at the shores of Britain at approximately 1,000BC and lived there during the Iron Age, the Roman Age and the post Roman era. Their legacy continues today where examples of the language, culture and traditions continue to exist.

Welsh Celts
Today, Wales is seen as a Celtic nation. The Welsh Celtic identity is widely accepted and contributes to a wider modern national identity. During the 1st centuries BC and AD, however, it was specific tribes and leaders which were named. By the time of the Roman invasion of Britain, four tribal peoples occupied areas of modern day Wales:

Ordovices (north-west)
Deceangli (north-east)
Demetae (south-west)
Silures (south-east)

The Celts were a collection of tribes with origins in central Europe that shared a similar language, religious beliefs, traditions and culture. It’s believed that the Celtic culture started to evolve as early as 1200 B.C. The Celts spread throughout western Europe—including Britain, Ireland, France and Spain—via migration. Their legacy remains most prominent in Ireland and Great Britain, where traces of their language and culture are still prominent today.

The existence of the Celts was first documented in the seventh or eighth century B.C. The Roman Empire, which ruled much of southern Europe at that time, referred to the Celts as “Galli,” meaning barbarians.

However, the Celts (pronounced with a hard “c” or “k” sound) were anything but barbarians, and many aspects of their culture and language have survived through the centuries.

Where Did The Celts Come From?
By the third century B.C., the Celts controlled much of the European continent north of the Alps mountain range, including present-day Ireland and Great Britain.

It is these islands off Europe’s western coast in which Celtic culture was allowed to survive and thrive, as the Roman Empire expanded on the European continent. Beginning with the reign of Julius Caesar in the first century B.C., the Romans launched a military campaign against the Celts, killing them by the thousands and destroying their culture in much of mainland Europe.

Caesar’s Roman armies attempted an invasion of Britain at this time, but were unsuccessful, and thus the Celtic people established a homeland there. As a result, many of their cultural traditions remain evident in present-day Ireland, Scotland and Wales, even now.

Celtics in Spain: The Galatians
Several tribes made up the larger population of the Celtic people. Indeed, the Gaels, Gauls, Britons, Irish and Galatians were all Celtic tribes.

The Galatians occupied much of the Asturias region of what is now northern Spain, and they successfully fought off attempted invasions by both the Romans and the Moors, the latter ruling much of present-day southern Spain.

Evidence of Galatian tradition remains in the region today. Descendants of the Galatians still participate in ancient outdoor dances, accompanied by bagpipes, an instrument that is often associated with more well-known Celtic nations such as Scotland and Ireland.

In addition, a Celtic symbol called the “Cruz de la Victoria” (similar to a Celtic cross) adorns the regional flag.

The Galatians also settled in nearby Galicia, a region on the northwest coast of Spain.

Celtics in Brittany: The Britons
Britons and Gauls settled in the northwestern corner of present-day France, the region known today as Brittany. Celtic tradition survived in the region as it was geographically isolated from the rest of France, and many festivals and events can trace their origins to Celtic times.

Many of the French “Bretons” also wear traditional Celtic hats called coiffes (which means “hats of lace”), and roughly one-quarter of the region’s residents speak Breton, a Celtic language similar to Welsh.

Although Caesar’s invasion of Britain was unsuccessful, the Romans eventually mounted a successful attack against the Britons following Caesar’s murder in the first century A.D. This incursion effectively pushed the Britons on the island west to Wales and Cornwall and north to Scotland.

In fact, the Romans built Hadrian’s Wall (remnants of which still stand today) near what is now the border between England and Scotland, in 120 A.D. The wall was designed to protect the conquering Roman settlers from the Celts who had fled north.

Celtic Languages
In Wales, called Cymru by the Celts, the native tongue—Welsh—is a Celtic language, and it is still widely spoken in the region. In Cornwall (the westernmost county in England, and near Wales), some (although very few) speak Cornish, which is similar to Welsh and Breton.

And, in Scotland, the Celtic language Scots Gaelic is still spoken, although by a minority, and the local affiliate of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) is known as BBC Alba, the Celtic name for the region.

Of course, the bagpipes, the musical instrument for which Scotland is arguably best known, can also trace their origin to Celtic times.

Celtic Religion
Neither the Romans nor the Anglo-Saxons, who took what is now England from the Romans in the fifth century A.D., were able to successfully invade Ireland. This enabled the Celtic tribes that had settled there—namely, the Gaels and the Irish—to survive, and allowed their culture to flourish.

When Christianity arrived in Ireland with St. Patrick in 432 A.D., many Celtic traditions were incorporated into the “new” religion. In fact, it’s said by some historians that Catholicism was able to take over as the dominant religion on the island following the mass killing of Druids, the religious leaders of the Gaels.

However, even with Christianity’s new-found prominence, traces of Celtic culture remain. Ireland’s national symbol, the shamrock (a green, three-pronged leaf) represents the “Holy Trinity” of Catholic tradition—the Father (God), son (Jesus Christ) and the Holy Spirit.

The Celtic cross represents the region’s unique take on the Catholic cross. In addition, many Celtic folklore stories, such as the legend of Cu Chulainn, are still told in Ireland.

Like Welsh, the Irish language of Gaelic is a Celtic language. Gaelic largely disappeared in the 19th century, but the language is still spoken in the western part of the country.

Celtic Designs
Across Europe, the Celts have been credited with many artistic innovations, including intricate stone carving and fine metalworking.

As a result, elaborate Celtic designs in artifacts crafted from gold, silver and precious gemstones are a major part of museum collections throughout Europe and North America.

Sources
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celts

2. Who were the ancient Celts? Shoreline Community College.

3. Roberts, Alice. “The Celts: not quite the barbarians history would have us believe.”

4. The Guardian. “Where the Celts come from and have lived for 3,000 years.”

5. IrishCentral.com. “The Celts: Blood Iron and Sacrifice.” BBC Two.

6. “Local Legends: the Hound of Ulster.” BBC.

Augustine of Canterbury

Augustine of Canterbury, the remarkable saint of the early 6th century, radiated an unparalleled passion for spreading Christianity across ancient lands. Crowned as the first Archbishop of Canterbury in 597, his unwavering dedication forged the roots of the Church of England, earning him the revered title of the “Apostle to the English.”

Picture this: Augustine, a humble monk, chosen by none other than Pope Gregory the Great himself, to embark on a divine mission. In 595, he set sail towards the untamed shores of Britain, carrying the torch of faith, determined to Christianize King Æthelberht and his Kingdom of Kent, where Anglo-Saxon paganism reigned supreme.

Oh, the trials and tribulations they faced before reaching their destination! Doubts crept into their hearts, tempting them to abandon their sacred purpose. But in a divine intervention, Pope Gregory’s voice echoed through their souls, urging them to persevere. And so, in 597, amidst a delicate mist, Augustine touched down on the Isle of Thanet, boldly stepping into Æthelberht’s magnificent realm of Canterbury.

Like a symphony of divine grace, Æthelberht, moved by his marriage to the Christian princess Bertha, opened his kingdom’s gates to the missionaries. With unbridled zeal, Augustine and his disciples tirelessly preached the gospel, their words becoming a sacred melody to the ears of the enraptured subjects. Thousands were baptized on that extraordinary Christmas Day in 597, forever sealing the triumph of their sacred mission.

Pope Gregory, recognizing the monumental impact of their work, sent reinforcements in 601. Letters brimming with encouragement and gifts for the burgeoning churches arrived, reinforcing the divine mandate bestowed upon Augustine. Even though attempts to sway the native British bishops to submit to his authority proved futile, the flame of Augustine’s passion never wavered.

Under his guidance, Roman bishops were firmly established in London and Rochester, solidifying the foundations of Christianity. A visionary, Augustine founded a school to train the next generation of Anglo-Saxon priests and missionaries, ensuring the legacy of faith would burn brightly for generations to come. It was under his watchful eye that his successor, Laurence of Canterbury, ascended to the episcopal throne, continuing the sacred work initiated by Augustine (in 604?).

The Christian Church was established in the British Isles well before 300. Some scholars believe that it was introduced by missionaries from the Eastern or Greek-speaking half of the Mediterranean world. Celtic Christianity had its own distinctive culture, and Greek scholarship flourished in Ireland for several centuries after it had died elsewhere in Western Europe.

However, in the fifth century Britain was invaded by non-Christian Germanic tribes: the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. They conquered the native Celtic Christians (despite resistance by, among others, a leader whose story has come down to us, doubtless with some exaggeration, as that of King Arthur), or drove them north and west into Cornwall, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. From these regions Celtic Christian missionaries returned to England to preach the Gospel to the heathen invaders. Meanwhile, the Bishop of Rome, Gregory the Great, decided to send missionaries from Rome, a group of monks led by their prior, Augustine (not to be confused with the more famous Augustine of Hippo). They arrived in Kent (the southeast corner of England) in 597, and the king, whose wife was a Christian, allowed them to settle and preach. Their preaching was outstandingly successful, the people were hungry for the Good News of salvation, and they made thousands of converts in a short time. In 601 the king himself was converted and baptised. Augustine was consecrated bishop and established his headquarters at Canterbury. From his day to the present, there has been an unbroken succession of archbishops of Canterbury.

In 603, he held a conference with the leaders of the already existing Christian congregations in Britain, but failed to reach an accommodation with them, largely due to his own tactlessness, and his insistence (contrary, it may be noted, to Gregory’s explicit advice) on imposing Roman customs on a church long accustomed to its own traditions of worship. It is said that the British bishops, before going to meet Augustine, consulted a hermit with a reputation for wisdom and holiness, asking him, “Shall we accept this man as our leader, or not?” The hermit replied, “If, at your meeting, he rises to greet you, then accept him, but if he remains seated, then he is arrogant and unfit to lead, and you ought to reject him.” Augustine, alas, remained seated. It took another sixty years before the breach was healed.

Background to the mission

After the withdrawal of the Roman legions from their province of Britannia in 410, the inhabitants were left to defend themselves against the attacks of the Saxons. Before the Roman withdrawal, Britannia had been converted to Christianity and produced the ascetic Pelagius. Britain sent three bishops to the Council of Arles in 314, and a Gaulish bishop went to the island in 396 to help settle disciplinary matters. Material remains testify to a growing presence of Christians, at least until around 360.

After the Roman legions departed, pagan tribes settled the southern parts of the island while western Britain, beyond the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, remained Christian. This native British Church developed in isolation from Rome under the influence of missionaries from Ireland and was centred on monasteries instead of bishoprics. Other distinguishing characteristics were its calculation of the date of Easter and the style of the tonsure haircut that clerics wore. Evidence for the survival of Christianity in the eastern part of Britain during this time includes the survival of the cult of Saint Alban and the occurrence in place names of eccles, derived from the Latin ecclesia, meaning “church”. There is no evidence that these native Christians tried to convert the Anglo-Saxons. The invasions destroyed most remnants of Roman civilization in the areas held by the Saxons and related tribes, including the economic and religious structures.

It was against this background that Pope Gregory I decided to send a mission, often called the Gregorian mission, to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity in 595. The Kingdom of Kent was ruled by Æthelberht, who married a Christian princess named Bertha before 588, and perhaps earlier than 560. Bertha was the daughter of Charibert I, one of the Merovingian kings of the Franks. As one of the conditions of her marriage, she brought a bishop named Liudhard with her to Kent. Together in Canterbury, they restored a church that dated to Roman times – possibly the current St Martin’s Church. Æthelberht was a pagan at this point but allowed his wife freedom of worship. One biographer of Bertha states that under his wife’s influence, Æthelberht asked Pope Gregory to send missionaries. The historian Ian N. Wood feels that the initiative came from the Kentish court as well as the queen. Other historians, however, believe that Gregory initiated the mission, although the exact reasons remain unclear. Bede, an 8th-century monk who wrote a history of the English church, recorded a famous story in which Gregory saw fair-haired Saxon slaves from Britain in the Roman slave market and was inspired to try to convert their people. More practical matters, such as the acquisition of new provinces acknowledging the primacy of the papacy, and a desire to influence the emerging power of the Kentish kingdom under Æthelberht, were probably involved. The mission may have been an outgrowth of the missionary efforts against the Lombards who, as pagans and Arian Christians, were not on good relations with the Catholic church in Rome.

Aside from Æthelberht’s granting of freedom of worship to his wife, the choice of Kent was probably dictated by a number of other factors. Kent was the dominant power in southeastern Britain. Since the eclipse of King Ceawlin of Wessex in 592, Æthelberht was the bretwalda, or leading Anglo-Saxon ruler; Bede refers to Æthelberht as having imperium (overlordship) south of the River Humber. Trade between the Franks and Æthelberht’s kingdom was well established, and the language barrier between the two regions was apparently only a minor obstacle, as the interpreters for the mission came from the Franks. Lastly, Kent’s proximity to the Franks allowed support from a Christian area. There is some evidence, including Gregory’s letters to Frankish kings in support of the mission, that some of the Franks felt that they had a claim to overlordship over some of the southern British kingdoms at this time. The presence of a Frankish bishop could also have lent credence to claims of overlordship, if Bertha’s Bishop Liudhard was felt to be acting as a representative of the Frankish church and not merely as a spiritual advisor to the queen. Frankish influence was not merely political; archaeological remains attest to a cultural influence as well.

In 595, Gregory chose Augustine, who was the prior of the Abbey of St Andrew in Rome, to head the mission to Kent. The pope selected monks to accompany Augustine and sought support from the Frankish royalty and clergy in a series of letters, of which some copies survive in Rome. He wrote to King Theuderic II of Burgundy and to King Theudebert II of Austrasia, as well as their grandmother Brunhild, seeking aid for the mission. Gregory thanked King Chlothar II of Neustria for aiding Augustine. Besides hospitality, the Frankish bishops and kings provided interpreters and Frankish priests to accompany the mission. By soliciting help from the Frankish kings and bishops, Gregory helped to assure a friendly reception for Augustine in Kent, as Æthelbert was unlikely to mistreat a mission which visibly had the support of his wife’s relatives and people. Moreover, the Franks appreciated the chance to participate in mission that would extend their influence in Kent. Chlothar, in particular, needed a friendly realm across the Channel to help guard his kingdom’s flanks against his fellow Frankish kings.[28]

Sources make no mention of why Pope Gregory chose a monk to head the mission. Pope Gregory once wrote to Æthelberht complimenting Augustine’s knowledge of the Bible, so Augustine was evidently well educated. Other qualifications included administrative ability, for Gregory was the abbot of St Andrews as well as being pope, which left the day-to-day running of the abbey to Augustine, the prior.

Augustine was accompanied by Laurence of Canterbury, his eventual successor to the archbishopric, and a group of about 40 companions, some of whom were monks.[16] Soon after leaving Rome, the missionaries halted, daunted by the nature of the task before them. They sent Augustine back to Rome to request papal permission to return. Gregory refused and sent Augustine back with letters encouraging the missionaries to persevere.[30] In 597, Augustine and his companions landed in Kent.[16] They achieved some initial success soon after their arrival:[23][29] Æthelberht permitted the missionaries to settle and preach in his capital of Canterbury where they used the church of St Martin’s for services.[31] Neither Bede nor Gregory mentions the date of Æthelberht’s conversion,[32] but it probably took place in 597.[31][c] In the early medieval period, large-scale conversions required the ruler’s conversion first, and Augustine is recorded as making large numbers of converts within a year of his arrival in Kent.[31] Also, by 601, Gregory was writing to both Æthelberht and Bertha, calling the king his son and referring to his baptism.[d] A late medieval tradition, recorded by the 15th-century chronicler Thomas Elmham, gives the date of the king’s conversion as Whit Sunday, or 2 June 597; there is no reason to doubt this date, although there is no other evidence for it.[31] Against a date in 597 is a letter of Gregory’s to Patriarch Eulogius of Alexandria in June 598, which mentions the number of converts made by Augustine, but does not mention any baptism of the king. However, it is clear that by 601 the king had been converted.[33] His baptism likely took place at Canterbury.[34]

Augustine established his episcopal see at Canterbury.[23] It is not clear when and where Augustine was consecrated as a bishop. Bede, writing about a century later, states that Augustine was consecrated by the Frankish Archbishop Ætherius of Arles, Gaul (France) after the conversion of Æthelberht. Contemporary letters from Pope Gregory, however, refer to Augustine as a bishop before he arrived in England. A letter of Gregory’s from September 597 calls Augustine a bishop, and one dated ten months later says Augustine had been consecrated on Gregory’s command by bishops of the German lands.[35] The historian R. A. Markus discusses the various theories of when and where Augustine was consecrated, and suggests he was consecrated before arriving in England, but argues the evidence does not permit deciding exactly where this took place.[36]

Soon after his arrival, Augustine founded the monastery of Saints Peter and Paul, which later became St Augustine’s Abbey,[23] on land donated by the king.[37] In a letter Gregory wrote to the patriarch of Alexandria in 598, he claimed that more than 10,000 Christians had been baptised; the number may be exaggerated but there is no reason to doubt that a mass conversion took place.[16][29] However, there were probably some Christians already in Kent before Augustine arrived, remnants of the Christians who lived in Britain in the later Roman Empire.[12] Little literary traces remain of them, however.[38] One other effect of the king’s conversion by Augustine’s mission was that the Frankish influence on the southern kingdoms of Britain was decreased.[39]

After these conversions, Augustine sent Laurence back to Rome with a report of his success, along with questions about the mission.[40] Bede records the letter and Gregory’s replies in chapter 27 of his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum; this section of the History is usually known as the Libellus responsionum.[41][42] Augustine asked for Gregory’s advice on a number of issues, including how to organise the church, the punishment for church robbers, guidance on who was allowed to marry whom, and the consecration of bishops. Other topics were relations between the churches of Britain and Gaul, childbirth and baptism, and when it was lawful for people to receive communion and for a priest to celebrate mass.[42]

Further missionaries were sent from Rome in 601. They brought a pallium for Augustine and a present of sacred vessels, vestments, relics, and books.[e] The pallium was the symbol of metropolitan status, and signified that Augustine was now an archbishop unambiguously associated with the Holy See. Along with the pallium, a letter from Gregory directed the new archbishop to consecrate 12 suffragan bishops as soon as possible and to send a bishop to York. Gregory’s plan was that there would be two metropolitans, one at York and one at London, with 12 suffragan bishops under each archbishop. As part of this plan, Augustine was expected to transfer his archiepiscopal see to London from Canterbury. This move never happened; no contemporary sources give the reason,[46] but it was probably because London was not part of Æthelberht’s domains. Instead, London was part of the kingdom of Essex, ruled by Æthelberht’s nephew Saebert of Essex, who converted to Christianity in 604.[19][47] The historian S. Brechter has suggested that the metropolitan see was indeed moved to London, and that it was only with the abandonment of London as a see after the death of Æthelberht that Canterbury became the archiepiscopal see. This theory contradicts Bede’s version of events, however.

n 604, Augustine founded two more bishoprics in Britain. Two men who had come to Britain with him in 601 were consecrated, Mellitus as Bishop of London and Justus as Bishop of Rochester.[19][49][50] Bede relates that Augustine, with the help of the king, “recovered” a church built by Roman Christians in Canterbury.[51][f] It is not clear if Bede meant that Augustine rebuilt the church or that Augustine merely reconsecrated a building that had been used for pagan worship. Archaeological evidence seems to support the latter interpretation; in 1973 the remains of an aisled building dating from the Romano-British period were uncovered just south of the present Canterbury Cathedral.[51] The historian Ian Wood argues that the existence of the Libellus points to more contact between Augustine and the native Christians because the topics covered in the work are not restricted to conversion from paganism, but also dealt with relations between differing styles of Christianity.[54]

Augustine failed to extend his authority to the Christians in Wales and Dumnonia to the west. Gregory had decreed that these Christians should submit to Augustine and that their bishops should obey him,[55] apparently believing that more of the Roman governmental and ecclesiastical organisation survived in Britain than was actually the case.[56] According to the narrative of Bede, the Britons in these regions viewed Augustine with uncertainty, and their suspicion was compounded by a diplomatic misjudgement on Augustine’s part.[57] In 603, Augustine and Æthelberht summoned the British bishops to a meeting south of the Severn. These guests retired early to confer with their people,[58] who, according to Bede, advised them to judge Augustine based upon the respect he displayed at their next meeting. When Augustine failed to rise from his seat on the entrance of the British bishops,[59] they refused to recognise him as their archbishop.[58][60] There were, however, deep differences between Augustine and the British church that perhaps played a more significant role in preventing an agreement. At issue were the tonsure, the observance of Easter, and practical and deep-rooted differences in approach to asceticism, missionary endeavours, and how the church itself was organised.[57] Some historians believe that Augustine had no real understanding of the history and traditions of the British church, damaging his relations with their bishops.[60] Also, there were political dimensions involved, as Augustine’s efforts were sponsored by the Kentish king, and at this period the Wessex and Mercian kingdoms were expanding to the west, into areas held by the Britons.

Gregory also instructed Augustine on other matters. Temples were to be consecrated for Christian use,[62] and feasts, if possible, moved to days celebrating Christian martyrs. One religious site was revealed to be a shrine of a local St Sixtus, whose worshippers were unaware of details of the martyr’s life or death. They may have been native Christians, but Augustine did not treat them as such. When Gregory was informed, he told Augustine to stop the cult and use the shrine for the Roman St Sixtus.[63]

Gregory legislated on the behaviour of the laity and the clergy. He placed the new mission directly under papal authority and made it clear that English bishops would have no authority over Frankish counterparts nor vice versa. Other directives dealt with the training of native clergy and the missionaries’ conduct.[64]

The King’s School, Canterbury claims Augustine as its founder, which would make it the world’s oldest existing school, but the first documentary records of the school date from the 16th century.[65] Augustine did establish a school, and soon after his death Canterbury was able to send teachers out to support the East Anglian mission.[66] Augustine received liturgical books from the pope, but their exact contents are unknown. They may have been some of the new mass books that were being written at this time. The exact liturgy that Augustine introduced to England remains unknown, but it would have been a form of the Latin language liturgy in use at Rome.

Before his death, Augustine consecrated Laurence of Canterbury as his successor to the archbishopric, probably to ensure an orderly transfer of office.[68] Although at the time of Augustine’s death, 26 May 604,[23] the mission barely extended beyond Kent, his undertaking introduced a more active missionary style into the British Isles. Despite the earlier presence of Christians in Ireland and Wales, no efforts had been made to try to convert the Saxon invaders. Augustine was sent to convert the descendants of those invaders, and eventually became the decisive influence in Christianity in most of the British Isles.[57][69] Much of his success came about because of Augustine’s close relationship with Æthelberht, which gave the archbishop time to establish himself.[70] Augustine’s example also influenced the great missionary efforts of the Anglo-Saxon Church.[71][72]

Augustine’s body was originally buried in the portico of what is now St Augustine’s, Canterbury,[37] but it was later exhumed and placed in a tomb within the abbey church, which became a place of pilgrimage and veneration. After the Norman Conquest the cult of St Augustine was actively promoted.[23] After the Conquest, his shrine in St Augustine’s Abbey held a central position in one of the axial chapels, flanked by the shrines of his successors Laurence and Mellitus.[73] King Henry I of England granted St. Augustine’s Abbey a six-day fair around the date on which Augustine’s relics were translated to his new shrine, from 8 September through 13 September.[74]

A life of Augustine was written by Goscelin around 1090, but this life portrays Augustine in a different light, compared to Bede’s account. Goscelin’s account has little new historical content, mainly being filled with miracles and imagined speeches.[75] Building on this account, later medieval writers continued to add new miracles and stories to Augustine’s life, often quite fanciful.[76] These authors included William of Malmesbury, who claimed that Augustine founded Cerne Abbey,[77] the author (generally believed to be John Brompton) of a late medieval chronicle containing invented letters from Augustine,[78] and a number of medieval writers who included Augustine in their romances.[79] Another problem with investigating Augustine’s saintly cult is the confusion resulting because most medieval liturgical documents mentioning Augustine do not distinguish between Augustine of Canterbury and Augustine of Hippo, a fourth-century saint. Medieval Scandinavian liturgies feature Augustine of Canterbury quite often, however.[80] During the English Reformation, Augustine’s shrine was destroyed and his relics were lost.

Augustine’s shrine was re-established in March 2012 at the church of St. Augustine in Ramsgate, Kent, very close to the mission’s landing site.[81] St Augustine’s Cross, a Celtic cross erected in 1884, marks the spot in Ebbsfleet, Thanet, East Kent, where the newly arrived Augustine is said to have first met and preached to the awaiting King Ethelbert.[82]

Æthelberht of Kent

Æthelberht (/ˈæθəlbərt/; also Æthelbert, Aethelberht, Aethelbert or Ethelbert; Old English: Æðelberht [ˈæðelberˠxt]; c. 550 – 24 February 616) was King of Kent from about 589 until his death.

The eighth-century monk Bede, in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People, lists him as the third king to hold imperium over other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. In the late ninth century Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, he is referred to as a bretwalda, or “Britain-ruler”. He was the first English king to convert to Christianity.

Æthelberht was the son of Eormenric, succeeding him as king, according to the Chronicle. He married Bertha, the Christian daughter of Charibert I, king of the Franks, thus building an alliance with the most powerful state in contemporary Western Europe; the marriage probably took place before he came to the throne.

Bertha’s influence may have led to Pope Gregory I’s decision to send Augustine as a missionary from Rome. Augustine landed on the Isle of Thanet in east Kent in 597. Shortly thereafter, Æthelberht converted to Christianity, churches were established, and wider-scale conversion to Christianity began in the kingdom. He provided the new church with land in Canterbury, thus helping to establish one of the foundation stones of English Christianity.

Æthelberht’s law for Kent, the earliest written code in any Germanic language, instituted a complex system of fines; the law code is preserved in the Textus Roffensis. Kent was rich, with strong trade ties to the Continent, and Æthelberht may have instituted royal control over trade. Coinage probably began circulating in Kent during his reign for the first time since the Anglo-Saxon settlement. He later came to be regarded as a saint for his role in establishing Christianity among the Anglo-Saxons. His feast day was originally 24 February but was changed to 25 February.

Ethelbert was the first English king to be converted to Christianity, which proved to be a crucial event in the development of English national identity. In 597 a Roman monk called Augustine arrived in Kent as leader of a group of missionaries sent by Pope Gregory the Great. The reign of Ethelbert would be central to the adoption and conversion to Christianity across the British Isles. It also set an important precedent to how the role of the Monarch and the Church would be entwined which still continues in the UK to this day.

The Christian Gospel was preached in Britain before 200, and by 300 the Celtic peoples of the island were largely Christian; but in the 400’s southeastern Britain (what we now call England) was invaded by tribes of pagan Anglo-Saxons (Angles, Saxons, and Jutes) who subdued the Christian Celts or drove them north and west into Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. The reconversion of England was then accomplished by Celtic missionaries entering England from the north and west, and Roman missionaries entering from the south and east.

The Jute kingdom of Kent was in the southeast corner of England, and in 597 a delegation of monks arrived from Rome, headed by Augustine of Canterbury (26 May 605) (not to be confused with his more famous namesake, Augustine of Hippo (28 August 430)). Æthelbert, king of Kent, was a pagan, but his wife Bertha, a Frankish princess, was a Christian, and he welcomed the strangers, listened politely to their invitation to convert, told them that he was resolved to continue in the religion of his fathers, and gave them a plot of ground and permission to build a church and to preach to anyone who cared to listen. Four years later, after at least 10,000 of his subjects had converted, Æthelbert himself was baptized. He did not pressure his remaining pagan subjects to follow him, but gave the missionaries help and encouragement in their preaching, built the cathedral of Saint Andrew in Rochester and the monastery of Saint Peter and Saint Paul (later the cathedral of Saint Augustine) at Canterbury; and influenced the conversion of King Sabert of the East Saxons, in whose territory he built the church of Saint Paul, London. He died on 24 February 616; but because that is the Feast of Matthias the Apostle, he is commemorated on 25 February.

Anglo-Saxon England

Linguistically, the Anglo-Saxons practically eradicated the native Britons.

Anglo-Saxon England or Early Medieval England, existing from the 5th to the 11th centuries from soon after the end of Roman Britain until the Norman conquest in 1066, consisted of various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms until 927, when it was united as the Kingdom of England by King Æthelstan (r. 927–939). It became part of the short-lived North Sea Empire of Cnut the Great, a personal union between England, Denmark and Norway in the 11th century.

The Anglo-Saxons migrated to England from mainland northwestern Europe after the Roman Empire abandoned Britain at the beginning of the 5th century. Anglo-Saxon history thus begins during the period of sub-Roman Britain following the end of Roman control, and traces the establishment of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in the 5th and 6th centuries (conventionally identified as seven main kingdoms: Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Sussex, and Wessex); their Christianisation during the 7th century; the threat of Viking invasions and Danish settlers; the gradual unification of England under the Wessex hegemony during the 9th and 10th centuries; and ending with the Norman conquest of England by William the Conqueror in 1066.

Anglo-Saxon identity survived beyond the Norman conquest, came to be known as Englishry under Norman rule, and through social and cultural integration with Celts, Danes and Normans became the modern English people.

The Anglo-Saxons were descendants of Germanic migrants, Celtic inhabitants of Britain, and Viking and Danish invaders. The Anglo-Saxons came from Denmark, Northern Germany, the Netherlands and Friesland and carried out a more systematic colonisation than the Vikings, who were pirates and performed numerous migrations. Also, the Viking Age probably started earlier than 793 BCE as it has been thought, probably around 400 BCE.

The Saxons were a Germanic people of the region north of the Elbe River stretching from Holstein (in modern-day Germany) to the North Sea. Some have suggested that the mixing of continental Europeans and Britons provided the basis of Anglo-Saxon ancestry in Britain, along with arrivals from further afield.

Anglo-Saxon facts: Who were they?

The Anglo-Saxons were a group of farmer-warriors who lived in Britain over a thousand years ago.

Made up of three tribes who came over from Europe, they were called the Angle, Saxon, and Jute tribes. The two largest were the Angle and Saxon, which is how we’ve come to know them as the Anglo-Saxons today.

They were fierce people, who fought many battles during their rule of Britain – often fighting each other! Each tribe was ruled by its own strong warrior who settled their people in different parts of the country.

When did the Anglo-Saxons invade Britain?

The Anglo-Saxons first tried invading in the 4th century, but the Roman army were quick to send them home again! Years later – around 450AD – the Ancient Romans left Britain, the Anglo-Saxons seized their chance and this time they were successful!

They left their homes in Germany, the Netherlands and Denmark and sailed over to Britain on wooden boats. Many of them were farmers before they came to Britain and it’s thought they were on the look-out for new land as floodwaters back home had made it almost impossible to farm.

The Anglo-Saxons didn’t like the stone houses and streets left by the Romans, so they built their own villages. They looked for land which had lots of natural resources like food, water and wood to build and heat their homes, and Britain’s forests had everything they needed. They surrounded each village with a high fence to protect cattle from wild animals like foxes and wolves, and to keep out their enemies, too!

We know what Anglo-Saxon houses were like from excavations of Anglo-Saxon villages. They were small wooden huts with a straw roof, and inside was just one room in which the whole family lived, ate, slept and socialised together – much like an ancient version of open-plan living! 

The biggest house in the village belonged to the chief, which was large enough to house him and all his warriors – and sometimes even the oxen, too! It was a long hall with a stone fire in the middle, and hunting trophies and battle armour hung from its walls. There were tiny windows and a hole in the roof to allow smoke to escape

Many towns and villages still carry their Anglo-Saxon names today, including “England” which comes from the Saxon word “Angle-Land”.

Early Anglo-Saxon villages were named after the leader of the tribe so everyone knew who was in charge. If you’d visited Reading in Anglo-Saxon times, you’d have been in Redda’s village – Redda being the local chieftain.

The Anglo-Saxons settled in many different parts of the country – the Jutes ended up in Kent, the Angles in East Anglia, and the Saxons in parts of Essex, Wessex, Sussex and Middlesex (according to whether they lived East, West, South or in the middle!)

Not all Roman towns were abandoned, though. Some chiefs realised that a walled city made for a great fortress, so they built their wooden houses inside the walls of Roman towns like London.

Many of today’s Christian traditions came from the Anglo-Saxons, but they weren’t always Christians. When they first came over from Europe they were Pagans, worshipping lots of different gods who they believed looked different parts of their life, such as family, crop growing, weather and even war.

The Anglo-Saxons would pray to the Pagan gods to give them good health, a plentiful harvest or success in battle.

It wasn’t until the Pope in Rome sent over a missionary – a monk called Augustine – to England in 597AD, that the Anglo-Saxons became Christians. Augustine convinced the Anglo-Saxon King Ethelbert of Kent to convert to Christianity and slowly the rest of the country followed suit. Pagan temples were turned into churches and more churches (built of wood) started popping up all over Britain.

Who invaded after the Anglo-Saxons?

From 793AD, the Vikings invaded Anglo-Saxon Britain several times, plundering and raiding towns and villages along the British coastline. The Anglo-Saxons tried to hold them back but groups of Vikings eventually settled in different parts of the country, especially York (or Jorvik, as they named it) – making it the second biggest city after London. The next invasion came in 1066AD, in one of the most famous battles of our history – the Battle of Hastings. When the Anglo-Saxon King Edward died without an heir, a new king was chosen to rule England – King Harold II. William the Conqueror of Normandy and Harald Hardrada, the King of Norway, weren’t keen on the new English king and thought that they both had the right to rule Britain.

A descendant of Viking raiders, William brought his army of Normans to Britain to take on the new king, and on 14 October 1066, the two armies fought at the Battle of Hastings. The Normans were victorious and Harold was killed. This signalled the end of Anglo-Saxon rule in Britain. England now had a Norman king, King William I, or William the Conqueror.

The Christianization of Anglo-Saxon England

When the Anglo-Saxons inhabited Britain, they brought with them Germanic paganism. The story of the conversion of the Saxons to Christianity is one filled with political intrigue and bloody conflict. Christianity has existed in Britain since the time of the Roman Empire when it spread across the British Isles over the process of many centuries. However, the coming of the Anglo-Saxons led to the extinguishing of Christianity in England and the resurgence of Germanic-inspired Anglo-Saxon paganism. It was not until the 7th century, and a papal mission sent by Gregory the Great, that the conversion of England began again. Through the baptism of monarchs and the establishment of royal hegemonies, the Christian faith spread throughout the elite of Anglo-Saxon England. Arguably, it was the work of missionaries that eventually ended Germanic paganism amongst the general populations of these Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.

Before The Anglo-Saxons: Origins Of Christianity In Britain

Christianity first arrived in Britain through the Roman Empire, likely via the many merchants, immigrants, and soldiers who arrived in the islands following the Roman conquest of Britain in 43 AD. By the fourth century, Christianity had become widespread thanks in large part to the 313 Edict of Milan, issued by the emperor Constantine, which legalized the practice of Christianity within the Roman Empire. Christianity was certainly highly organized in Britain, with regional bishops (the most powerful seem to have been based in London and York) and a church hierarchy that looked to the church in Gaul as its superior.

At the start of the 5th century, a rebellion of the garrison in Britain ended Roman control over the province. A soldier, Constantine III, was appointed by the rebels and crowned emperor – however, when his rebellion fell apart in 409, the Western Roman Empire was too weak to reassert control over Britain. The Roman citizens of Britain were told to look to their own defenses, and Romano-British Christian culture arguably survived for some time in the west of Britain, despite subsequent Saxon invasions.

Christianity also survived in Ireland. Saint Patrick, who was active in the early to mid-5th century, was born into a Christian Romano-British family. At the age of sixteen, he was taken as a slave by Irish raiders from his home (which may have been in modern-day Cumbria in the north of England), and spent six years in captivity, before escaping and returning home. He later had a vision in which the ‘Voice of the Irish’ begged him to return – acting upon this he returned to Ireland as a missionary and led a hugely successful conversion campaign that turned Ireland into a Christian land. Ireland remained Christian throughout the following centuries, and Irish missionaries played a crucial role in converting the pagan Anglo-Saxons.

Following the Roman withdrawal from Britain, there was a period of Germanic settlement in Britain. It is important to note that this ‘invasion’ or ‘settlement’ was not one large monolithic movement, rather it was a series of piecemeal migrations by various Germanic groups, principally from the Frisian coast, the Jutland peninsula, and the southern coasts of Norway.

The Saxon peoples were not unfamiliar with Britain – they had served as mercenaries in Roman armies at various times, including in campaigns fought in Britain. There is evidence to suggest that some Saxon leaders were invited in by British rulers in order to help maintain peace and protect their realms from invasion. Although initially peaceful, the Saxon migrations soon became increasingly violent according to sources such as the mid-6th century monk Gildas. It is Gildas who details Romano-British resistance to the Angles, Saxons, Jutes, and Frisians who came to Britain, led by a Christian named Ambrosius who later came to be referred to as the legendary King Arthur.

Despite resistance, the Saxon settlers from diverse origins, who came to be known as the ‘Anglo-Saxons’ collectively, established political hegemony across most of England, leading to the creation of several kingdoms by the beginning of the 7th century. Although the sources describe massacres and displacements of the native British, it seems likely that the Anglo-Saxon rule was centered on a warrior elite who ruled over a population that remained primarily British. Slowly, this ruling class accultured to its new home, with a great deal of intermarriage. As part of this process, elements of culture such as Germanic paganism became widespread, and a new Anglo-Saxon culture developed, including Anglo-Saxon paganism and the language of Old English.

Therefore, at the end of the 6th century, Christianity in Britain seemed to have been effectively eliminated. The Anglo-Saxons were polytheistic pagans, with gods inspired by Germanic paganism: The Anglo-Saxon god ‘Woden’ is very similar to the Viking ‘Odin’, and ‘Thunor’ was the Saxon version of ‘Thor’.

It was Pope Gregory I who initiated the process of bringing Britain back into Christendom by dispatching a mission led by a monk named Augustine. The papal mission landed in the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Kent in 597, which was likely chosen because its king, Æthelberht, had a Christian Frankish wife named Bertha, despite being a pagan himself. Gradually, over the next century, Christianity spread throughout the seven Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Britain.

The Ecclesiastical History of the English People, written later in around 731 AD by the English monk Bede, details how the missionary Augustine was granted permission to settle at Canterbury and to preach to the population. After a short time (likely in the year 597) he was even successful in converting king Æthelberht himself. This was a crucial step, as the population of a kingdom would be more likely to become Christian if their monarch had been baptized, and many conversions were recorded following Æthelberht’s acceptance of Christianity.